Yet that same bundle can quickly come undone. With the right vibration or movement, the staples can separate and return to a loose collection of individual pieces.

Researchers at the Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering at CU Boulder believe this unusual combination of strength and reversibility could help inspire a new generation of engineered materials. By designing particles that interlock in a similar way to staples, they hope to create materials that are strong, adaptable, and potentially recyclable.

“We’ve been playing around with the idea of building blocks and geometry for many years, but we started looking at interlocking, entangled particles only recently,” said Professor Francois Barthelat, the leader of the Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Bioinspiration. “We are excited about the combination of properties we can get out of these systems and we believe this technology has the potential to go in many directions.”

The findings were recently published in the Journal of Applied Physics.

How Entangled Particles Create Strength

The research centers on a phenomenon known as entanglement, which occurs when particles become intertwined and form connections with one another.

Entanglement is common throughout nature. Bird nests, for example, rely on a network of interwoven twigs and fibers to maintain their structure. Bones also gain strength through the interaction of hard mineral components and softer proteins.

The CU Boulder team wanted to understand how similar principles could be used to create manufactured materials. Their work pointed to one crucial factor: the shape of the particles themselves.

“Let’s take sand as an example. Sand is smooth and convex-shaped, meaning it cannot interlock from grain to grain,” PhD student Youhan Sohn said. “However, we found that if we change the shape of a grain of sand, we can drastically affect its behavior and mechanical properties, including the particle’s ability to link with other particles.”

To investigate further, the researchers used Monte Carlo simulations, a computational technique that allowed them to study how different particle shapes interact. Their objective was to identify a geometry that would maximize entanglement.

Why Staple-Shaped Particles Stand Out

After identifying promising designs through simulation, the team conducted pickup tests to observe how the particles behaved in real-world conditions.

The results revealed that a “two-legged” particle, resembling a staple, produced the highest degree of entanglement. The researchers also found that this shape offered several unexpected benefits.

One of the most notable was its ability to combine tensile strength and toughness, two properties that are often difficult to achieve together in conventional materials.

“Our entangled granular material using the staple-like particle demonstrates both high strength and toughness at the same time,” said PhD student Saeed Pezeshki.

The staple-like particles also displayed another unusual characteristic. They could rapidly come together into a stronger structure and then just as quickly separate again.

By applying different vibration patterns, the researchers were able to control how strongly the particles became entangled. Gentle vibrations encouraged the particles to interlock and strengthen the material, while stronger vibrations caused the network to unravel.

“It’s a strange material because it’s obviously not a liquid. However, it’s also not quite solid. This opens new and intriguing engineering possibilities,” Barthelat said. “Handling a bundle of these entangled particles feels very remote and exotic.”

Potential Uses in Construction and Robotics

The researchers believe the technology could eventually support more sustainable approaches to construction.

In the future, bridges, buildings, and other large structures might be built using entangled materials that can later be taken apart rather than demolished. Such materials could potentially be reused or fully recycled at the end of their service life.

The concept may also have applications in robotics.

“I was talking with other students who believe this technology can be used in swarm robotics — where small robots can entangle, do a task and then disentangle when they are done,” said Pezeshki.

“Yes, kind of like that liquid metal T-1000 in Terminator 2 who can change shape to slide under a door and then transform back to a human’s size on the other side,” added Barthelat. “It’s expensive and scaling up is a challenge, but it’s something that’s on everybody’s mind.”

Testing Even Stronger Particle Designs

The team is now moving into the next stage of the research.

Their latest experiments focus on a new particle design that includes additional protruding “legs.” The researchers compare the shape to the spiky burrs that cling stubbornly to shoes and clothing outdoors. They believe these added features could create even stronger entanglement effects and unlock new possibilities for future materials.

One of the most surprising features of quantum mechanics is that objects can exist in multiple states simultaneously. This concept is commonly illustrated by Schrödinger’s cat, a hypothetical cat that is considered both alive and dead until it is observed.

While the thought experiment is fictional, scientists routinely create real quantum superpositions in the laboratory. Atoms, light, and even motion can be placed into multiple quantum states at once. The ability to generate and control these states is critical for technologies such as quantum computers and ultra-precise clocks.

A familiar example is a quantum bit, or qubit, which can exist in a combination of both 0 and 1 at the same time. However, quantum systems are capable of much more than two-state behavior.

Quantum harmonic oscillators, which can occupy many energy levels, offer a far richer set of possibilities. These oscillators describe a wide range of physical systems, including light, vibrations, and the motion of trapped particles. Scientists have used them to create many different kinds of quantum superpositions. One well-known example is the “cat state,” where an oscillator exists as a superposition of two wave packets moving in opposite directions. These wave packets, called coherent states, are the closest quantum equivalents to classical motion.

Building Quantum States From Nonclassical Components

The Oxford team has now demonstrated an entirely new family of quantum superpositions.

Rather than constructing cat-like states from coherent-state wave packets, the researchers developed a technique that combines a broad range of quantum components that are already highly nonclassical. In squeezed-state superpositions, for example, quantum uncertainty is distributed differently across each part of the state.

The experiment relied on the motion of a single trapped ion. A trapped ion combines two distinct quantum systems in one platform. Its internal state behaves like a qubit, while its motion acts as a quantum harmonic oscillator that can occupy many different motional states. This combination makes trapped ions especially useful for creating quantum states that extend beyond conventional qubits.

To generate the new states, the researchers first engineered interactions that entangled the ion’s internal state with different possible states of motion. They then performed a mid-circuit quantum measurement on the internal state, causing the ion’s motion to collapse into the desired superposition of nonclassical components.

“This approach gave us a tool to sculpt the quantum superposition into almost any shape,” explains lead author Dr. Sebastian Saner (Department of Physics, University of Oxford).

Programmable Control of Exotic Quantum States

The new method gave the team a high degree of control over the quantum states they produced.

By adjusting experimental parameters, they could modify the relative size, orientation, and separation of the components within the superposition. This flexibility allowed them to create a wide variety of unusual motional quantum states using the same trapped-ion system.

The researchers then reconstructed the quantum states directly. Their measurements revealed interference patterns and regions of Wigner negativity — clear signs that the states could not be described as ordinary classical mixtures. These observations confirmed that the experiment had successfully produced genuine quantum superpositions composed of truly nonclassical motional states.

The team is now working with theorists to better understand exactly how “quantum” these newly created states are.

“We were really encouraged by our colleagues’ reaction when we showed them what we had made. We believe we’re still scratching the surface of what’s possible, both for practical applications and for understanding these states at a more fundamental level,” says Dr. Raghavendra Srinivas (Department of Physics, University of Oxford), who supervised the work.

Potential Impact on Quantum Computing

The research points toward future quantum technologies that rely on quantum oscillators instead of only simple quantum bits.

One particularly promising application is quantum computing. These types of states may be more resistant to errors while also supporting simpler and more effective error-correction strategies. Beyond computing, they provide a new experimental platform for investigating one of physics’ biggest questions: where the boundary lies between the classical world we experience and the underlying quantum reality that governs it.

Scientists from the University of Reading, Aberystwyth University, and Arla Foods Ingredients have been working together to develop a whey protein (a dairy derived ingredient found in gym shakes and sports supplements) with enhanced texture qualities.

Their findings, published in the International Dairy Journal, indicate that adjusting the manufacturing process could make whey protein drinks more pleasant to drink.

Holly Giles, lead author and PhD researcher at the University of Reading, said: “Protein drinks can often have issues with taste and texture, making them hard to swallow and finish. We know this is a real problem for a lot of people, whether they are trying to build muscle or simply maintain their strength as they get older. The research findings give us clear directions to investigate to make protein drinks more palatable and nutritious, which could make a real difference to people who rely on them.”

How Whey Protein Processing Affects Flavor

The study builds on earlier research from the same team that developed a technique for selectively concentrating whey proteins. Using carefully controlled pressure, researchers pushed liquid whey through a fine membrane and achieved more than twice the typical concentration of alpha-lactalbumin, a protein that is highly valued in infant formula production.

To better understand how this protein influences taste and texture, the researchers further refined the process at the pilot-scale food processing facilities at AberInnovation. This allowed them to produce an alpha-lactalbumin-enriched sample for testing.

Minerals Found To Influence Taste and Texture

Taste tests conducted by a trained sensory panel revealed several positive changes. The enriched whey protein delivered improved texture characteristics and reduced the amount of friction experienced in the mouth, creating a smoother drinking experience.

However, the panel also detected stronger bitter and peppery flavors. Further analysis showed that these unwanted tastes were not caused by the protein itself. Instead, they were linked to minerals that became concentrated during the processing stage.

After identifying the source of the problem, the researchers modified the filtration process to remove those concentrated minerals. The result was a product that retained the texture improvements while achieving taste characteristics comparable to the original whey protein control.

Giles concluded: “We now have a much clearer picture of how both the proteins and minerals in whey affect the way it tastes and feels to drink. Further research has the potential to improve the taste and texture of protein drinks, making them a more palatable and appealing option to the many people wanting to increase their protein intake.”

The study was led by neurobiologist and behavioral biologist Prof. Dr. Andrew Straw, whose team used a drone to monitor honey bees traveling between their hive and a food source located about 120 meters away in an agricultural setting.

To track the insects during flight, the researchers used a technique called ‘Fast Lock-On (FLO) Tracking’, developed by Straw’s research group. The method involves attaching a tiny reflective marker to each bee. A computer mounted on the drone analyzes reflected light and can identify and track a bee within milliseconds as it flies.

The observations revealed that each honey bee follows its own preferred route and maintains that path with exceptional accuracy on both outbound and return trips. The bees also appear to use features in the surrounding landscape to help guide their journeys.

“Our tracking system makes it possible for the first time to record high-resolution 3D flight paths of honey bees in natural landscapes,” explains Straw. “Our recordings show that each bee has its own preferred route and flies it very precisely. You could almost say that each bee has its own personality.”

How Honey Bees Use Landmarks to Navigate

The researchers analyzed 255 flight paths collected near Kaiserstuhl, Germany. The study area included hedges, a cornfield, and a tree that stood between the hive and the food source, preventing a direct route.

“We found a high degree of precision in the flight paths. Individual bees repeated their individual flight paths nearly exactly on several flights. They often fly just a few centimeters away from their previous paths,” Straw emphasizes.

The most consistent flight behavior occurred near prominent landscape features, particularly the tree. The greatest variation appeared when bees flew above the cornfield, where the scenery offered fewer distinct visual cues.

“Our results suggest that visual landmarks aid the bees’ navigation and increase the precision of their flight paths,” explains Straw. In contrast, the bees’ uncertainty increases in visually monotonous environments.

Honey Bee Navigation vs. the Waggle Dance

The findings also shed new light on the famous waggle dance, the behavior honey bees use to communicate the location of food sources to other members of the colony.

“It was previously known that the directional information in the waggle dance is not entirely accurate,” explains Straw. For food sources approximately 100 meters away, the directional information in the waggle dance can deviate by around 30 degrees.

The new research suggests that this lack of precision in the dance is not the result of poor navigation skills. Instead, bees appear to be far more accurate when traveling to locations they already know.

“Our research has shown that individual bees navigate much more accurately to destinations they are familiar with. Even where their flight paths vary most, they deviate from their individual route by only a few degrees. Our results allow us to conclude that the inaccuracy of the waggle dance is not due to the bees’ limited navigational abilities. Rather, individual animals are spatially much more accurately oriented than their dance communication would suggest,” says Straw.

Although black holes are widely accepted by physicists, they still raise profound questions. How can a mass equal to billions of Suns be squeezed into an infinitely small point? How can spacetime become infinitely curved at a singularity?

At this extreme limit, the known laws of physics cease to provide reliable answers. Scientists cannot accurately describe what happens under such conditions. Black holes also present another challenge because they hide everything beyond their event horizons. Any matter, radiation, or information that crosses this boundary, including light itself, can no longer be observed.

Gravastars and the Role of Dark Energy

Because of these unresolved issues, some researchers have explored the possibility that at least some objects identified as black holes could actually be something else entirely. One proposed alternative is an ultra compact object known as a gravastar.

Gravastars would be nearly as dense and massive as black holes, making them extremely difficult to detect because of their intense gravitational pull. Unlike black holes, however, they would not contain a singularity or an event horizon. Instead, beneath their outer layers of ordinary matter, they would be filled with dark energy. This mysterious form of energy produces an outward pressure that counteracts gravity and prevents complete collapse.

For many physicists, gravastars offer an appealing alternative because they avoid some of the conceptual problems associated with black holes. Yet one major question has remained unanswered for decades: How could gravastars actually form?

New Solution Suggests a Mini Universe Forms

Theoretical physicists Daniel Jampolski and Professor Luciano Rezzolla have now proposed what they describe as the first dynamic solution to Albert Einstein’s equations of General Relativity that explains how a collapsing star could produce a gravastar.

According to their work, the collapse of a massive star may trigger the birth of a miniature universe within the collapsing matter itself. This newly formed universe would not be very different from the Big Bang that gave rise to our own cosmos. As in our universe, dark energy would drive its expansion.

As the mini universe expands, it pushes outward against the inward pull of gravity. This opposing force can halt the collapse before a black hole forms. The result is a stable balance between the collapsing stellar material and the expanding interior universe. That balance creates a gravastar.

The researchers say their solution provides the first explanation for a question scientists have debated for roughly 25 years: how gravastars could emerge from the collapse of ordinary matter.

Room for New Physics

Daniel Jampolski, who developed the solution during his master’s thesis under the supervision of Luciano Rezzolla, explains: “The Big Bang of the emerging universe can unfold once the star has already collapsed almost to the point of becoming a black hole.”

The behavior of matter compressed to such extraordinary densities remains poorly understood, leaving open the possibility of new physical phenomena. As Jampolski notes: “It is easier to imagine that the Big Bang occurs only at a very late stage, when matter has already been compressed to an extreme degree, thereby giving rise to new effects.”

Rezzolla, Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics at Goethe University, emphasizes that exploring alternatives does not mean rejecting black holes. “Looking for alternatives to black holes should not suggest a skepticism towards black holes, which still represent the most natural and simplest solution to the fate of gravitational collapse. However, as scientists in general, and as theoretical physicists in particular, it is essential to maintain an unbiased approach towards what we do not know and hence explore both the accepted wisdom and the more exotic interpretations. History teaches us that it is not unusual for the latter to become the former.”