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Turns Out, Dealing With Difficult People Is Probably Aging You Faster
Ever had an exchange with someone in your circle that makes you feel like you sprouted a few more gray hairs?
You might not be totally imagining it.
A recent study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences this February found that those of us who have more people “who create problems or make life more difficult” in our lives (the researchers brand these types as “hasslers”) can be seen to have a higher age biologically than their true chronological age.
“Negative social ties, or ‘hasslers,’ are pervasive yet understudied components of social networks that may accelerate biological aging and morbidity,” the researchers wrote. “… Negative relationships are not rare within close relationships, as nearly 30% of individuals report having at least one hassler in their network.”
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So, while you may be 35 on paper, the number of “hasslers” you encounter and negotiate with each day could have your body feeling mid-40s real quick — with researchers finding that an increased number of these “negative social ties” leads to “accelerated biological aging and a broad range of health outcomes” that can range from increased inflammation to having two or more chronic health conditions.
Not every “hassler” is created equal, however. Researchers noted that hasslers who are both kin and non-kin tend to show “detrimental associations,” while hasslers who are spouses do not. Hasslers who are your kin were associated with more intense age acceleration (1.1 year increase).
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Meanwhile, the number of these negative social ties you have will also be a factor in how badly you’re hit: “Having more hasslers is associated with accelerated biological aging in both rate and cumulative burden: Each additional hassler corresponds to approximately 1.5% faster pace of aging and roughly 9 [months] older biological age.”
The researchers note that their findings reinforce what we already know about allostatic load, or the cumulative “wear and tear” people experience from navigating (and trying to adapt to) chronic stress and major life events.
The more “hasslers’ and stressful dynamics you have in your day-to-day life — particularly ones you can’t always walk away from — the more your stress-sensitive systems can get activated. That can lead to “systemic inflammation, epigenetic dysregulation and metabolic strain.”
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Family is complicated — and your hasslers are very likely people you care about.
The researchers note that exposure to these “hasslers” follows patterns that might be familiar if you’re aware of conditions that typically predict health vulnerabilities: “women, daily smokers, people in poorer health, and those with adverse childhood experiences [are] more likely to report having hasslers in their networks.” These are also demographics that are likely already facing their own allostatic load challenges.
The researchers further address how social relationships, while more typically discussed as “sources of support that promote health and well-being” in research like this, can also function as “chronic stressors” — and chronic stress is already considered “a well-established driver of biological aging.”
“A growing body of research suggests that negative ties — relationships characterized by hostility, strain, or excessive burden, making one’s life difficult— may be prevalent and have lasting health consequences,” per the researchers.
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So while people like President Donald Trump might chronically stress you out with every headline that darkens your doorstep, he wouldn’t count as a hassler in your life. That distinction is reserved for more interpersonal relationships.
Researchers note that these negative social ties are also more likely to show up in dynamics that are less voluntary, harder to avoid or harder to step away from: “Ties that involve obligation, shared space, or interdependence (e.g., parents, children, coworkers, roommates) appear more likely to produce hasslers, whereas voluntary and self-selected ties (e.g., friends, church members, healthcare providers) tend to generate fewer,” according to the researchers.
“This dual nature of social ties — both protective and harmful — raises important questions about their role in biological aging and the pathogenesis of common morbidities,” per the study. “However, existing research relies on methods that capture only the positive dimensions of social relationships (e.g., social support), often overlooking negative or strained ties. As a result, there is comparatively little empirical insight into how the dark side of networks contributes to biological aging.”
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Labour MP Attacks Plan To Scrap Most Jury Trials After Revealing She Was Raped

A Labour MP has condemned David Lammy’s plan to scrap most jury trials after revealing for the first time that she had been raped.
Charlotte Nichols accused the justice secretary of using victims as a “cudgel” to force the controversial reforms through.
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The government wants to get rid of juries in cases where the sentence is expected to be less than three years.
Ministers say the move is necessary to clear the huge backlog of court cases in England and Wales.
But critics say the planned reforms, contained in the Court and Tribunals Bill, will remove a fundamental right while not actually solving the problem.
During a Commons debate on the bill, Nichols said she had waited 1,088 days for her case to get to court.
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The MP for Warrington North said: “Every single one of those days was agony, made worse by having a role in public life that meant that the mental health consequences of my trauma were played out in public, with the event that led to my eventual sectioning for my own safety still being something that I receive regular social media abuse from strangers about to this day.
“But here’s the kicker, in this debate, experiences like mine feel like they’ve been weaponised and are being used for rhetorical misdirection, for what this bill actually is.
“The violence against women and girls sector haven’t had the opportunity to come together to discuss it, and the government’s framing and narrative has been to pit survivors and defendants against each other in a way I think is deeply damaging.
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“We have been told that if we have concerns about this bill, it is because we have not been raped or because we don’t care enough for rape victims.
“The opposite is true in my case, it is because I have been raped that I am as passionate as I am about what it means for a justice system to be truly victim focused.
“It is because I have endured every indignity that our broken criminal justice system could mete out that I care what kind of reform will actually deliver justice for survivors and victims of crime more widely.”
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She added: “There is so much that we can be doing for rape victims that isn’t [David Lammy] using them as a cudgel to drive through reforms that aren’t directly relevant to them.”
Morgan Freeman’s The Dinosaur Narration Bloopers Are Our New Favourite Thing On The Internet
If you’ve already torn through all four episodes of Netflix’s hit miniseries The Dinosaurs, you’re definitely going to want to check out the streaming giant’s latest gift for viewers.
The unique documentary premiered last week, and has already gone down a storm, with the show exploring the “rise and fall of the dinosaurs”, with narration from the incomparable Morgan Freeman.
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On Monday evening, Netflix released blooper footage from Morgan inside the recording booth, and we’re delighted to report that it’s an absolute treasure trove.
From the international treasure introducing himself as “Morgan fucking Freeman” to the Oscar winner stumbling over some species’ trickier names (“Yutyranus? Let’s say Yutyrannus, ‘anus’ sounds like ‘ass’”), the clips are a must-watch for anyone who loved The Dinosaurs.
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The Dinosaurs was co-produced by recent EGOT recipient Steven Spielberg, and serves as the sister show to his previous nature series Life On Our Planet.
Since its premiere earlier this month, the show has gone down a storm with critics (it holds a rare 100% score on Rotten Tomatoes, based on seven especially positive reviews) with particular praise for Morgan’s commentary.
It’s similarly proved popular with Netflix users and, at the time of writing, it’s the UK platform’s number one show, ahead of hits like Bridgerton, The Night Agent and Vladimir.
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Over the last few days, the paleontology community has also been weighing in – and let’s just say they have a few notes.
The Dinosaurs director Nick Shoolingin‑Jordan previously told Netflix’s companion outlet Tudum that he wanted to “tell the full chronology all the way through and take the audience on a rip‑roaring adventure” with his latest venture.
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Dan Tapster, its showrunner, added: “We had eight 50-minute episodes to tell the entire story of life on Earth [in Life On Our Planet], so there were lots of things where we could only scratch the surface – and the dinosaur story was absolutely one of them.
“With The Dinosaurs, we finally get to tell that story in full and celebrate it like no one has ever done before.”
What Is A ‘Sciura Milanese’? We Have So Much To Learn From This Italian Cultural Icon.
From the passeggiata to the art of aperitivo, many aspects of Italian culture capture imaginations around the world. One particularly inspiring figure is the “sciura Milanese.”
The archetype is so recognizable that there’s even an Instagram account dedicated to documenting these iconic women of Milan.
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“‘Sciura’ is a word from the Milanese dialect that simply means ‘lady,’” Elisa Torello, founder of Elisa’s Italian School, told HuffPost. “It is pronounced ‘shoo-ra,’ with a rounded ‘u’ sound typical of the Milanese dialect. Traditionally, it was a respectful way to address a married or mature woman, especially someone of a certain social standing.”
People from Milan who speak the local dialect might say “sciura” to mean “lady” or the title of “Mrs.”/“Ms.” before a last name. But it also has another specific meaning.
“Today the regional word ‘sciura,’ often paired with the adjective ‘Milanese,’ is used in informal Italian as well, fueled by social media trends,” said Lucrezia Oddone of Learn Italian with Lucrezia. She explained that a “sciura Milanese” is an older woman, “usually aged 60+ ― but not exclusively, as this trend also embraces women in their 50s who live in the center of Milan ― who belongs to the upper middle class and has a very classic look.”
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The team behind the blog Milanesi a Milano ― Ilaria Polo, Caterina Pacianti and Laura Stricchiola ― say these well-to-do Milanese women share a set of recognizable traits.
“The ‘sciura Milanese’ is a very specific cultural figure,” they explained in an email. “She is elegant, well-groomed and unmistakably Milanese in her taste. She often wears timeless luxury pieces ― structured handbags, important jewelry, tailored coats ― and moves through the city with quiet confidence. She is a regular at historic cafés in the city center, attends cultural events and embodies a certain idea of understated but recognizable sophistication.”

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This figure represents a visual identity, taste and lifestyle deeply tied to the city of Milan.
“The sciura Milanese is an institution,” said M. Grazia Montagnari, founder of Italian with Grace. “Picture her like this: perfectly coiffed hair (usually an impeccable ash blonde), a tailored coat, a silk scarf knotted with a nonchalance that actually took hours of practice and the inevitable luxury handbag perched on her forearm.”
She believes the sciura perfectly embodies the concept of “quiet luxury.” Rather than trying to keep up with rapidly changing contemporary trends, she owns her personal style and pays little attention to what others are doing. The sciura knows who she is.
“She is the personification of ‘old money,’” echoed Andrea Novello, the Milan tours manager for Walks of Italy. “Her ‘uniform’ is iconic ― a perfect blonde bob, a Max Mara camel coat, an Hermès foulard and plenty of gold jewelry. She is the undisputed queen of the borghesia ― the bourgeoisie.”
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There’s another accessory that sometimes completes the look as well. “She may even be accompanied by a small dog,” said Martina Carucci from the language learning app Preply.
In many ways, the sciura functions as a visual symbol of continuity, a reminder of tradition in a city that is constantly modernizing and evolving.
How The ‘Sciura Milanese’ Became An Icon
“The word ‘sciura’ has long circulated in everyday Milanese speech as the local equivalent of ‘signora,‘” Torello said. “In many cases, a ‘sciura’ would have been the wife of a ‘sciur,’ a gentleman, often associated with the city’s professional or industrial class. In older generations, it functioned simply as a neutral or polite form of address.”
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Although the word has been around for centuries, the image associated with the sciura has evolved.
“The more recognizable figure of the ‘sciura Milanese’ took shape in the decades following World War II, when Milan experienced rapid economic growth and became a center of finance, publishing and fashion,” Torello said. “The women who lived through that transformation, rooted in tradition but surrounded by rising luxury culture, gradually came to embody a specific type of composed, understated elegance.”
Gianluca Pedrotti, a principal learning content strategist at the language app Babbel, described the post-World War II sciura as a recognizable archetype ― “an elegant, impeccably groomed, often affluent older woman tied to the city’s bourgeois or old-money milieu.”
Many credit Milan-based designer Elvira Leonardi Bouyeure ― known as Biki ― with shaping the polished 1950s aesthetic associated with the sciura, an image that continued to influence Milanese style for decades.
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“The 1980s were the ‘Golden Era’ for the sciura Milanese,” Novello said. “This was the time of ‘Milano da Bere’ when the city was the jet-setting playground of Europe. The sciura was a fixture in the front row at Armani or Versace, hopping from private gallery openings to weekends in St. Moritz. She represents that specific moment in history when Milanese industrial wealth met global fashion glamor.”
In the 21st century, the sciura experienced a pop-culture explosion thanks to social media. The Instagram account @sciuraglam (formerly @sciuragram) was founded in 2016 and now boasts more than 420,000 followers.
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“Since its origin, the term’s popularity has soared,” Carucci said. “Originally, the term served to represent, and slightly mock, a specific stereotype within Milan. Throughout the years, it has evolved from one of mockery to become a phrase which represents a newfound respect and admiration for a sciura Milanese.”
Today, the term “sciura” operates on multiple levels.
“In formal or dialect contexts, especially among older speakers, it can still simply mean ‘lady,’” Torello said. “In informal speech, particularly among younger generations who may not actively use dialect, it refers to a recognizable figure ― the elegant Milanese woman of a certain age.”
“Polished hair, fur coats, designer handbags, and a fiercely local pride all became part of the imagery,” Pedrotti said. “The term evolved from simple address to cultural shorthand.”
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What It Means To Be A ‘Sciura’ Today
Today, the term “sciura” or “sciura Milanese” evokes a range of opinions, but perhaps the most common response is admiration.
“They represent the idea of aging with extreme grace and dignity,” Montagnari noted. “Who wouldn’t want to reach 80 with that kind of poise?”
She emphasized that being called a “sciura” is a compliment to your sophistication and elegance. Novello added that many view these figures as style icons who invest in high-quality, enduring pieces.
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“They are the ‘cool nonnas’ who actually lived the ’80s jet-set life,” he said.

Getty Images/Alena Zakirova/WWD
The “sciura” is not purely aspirational, however.
“What makes the term especially interesting linguistically is how its meaning shifts depending on tone and context,” Pedrotti said. “While it can signal respect or admiration, it can also be used ironically or pejoratively. In the expression ‘Ué, sciura!’ ― with Ué functioning as a greeting — it can take on a mocking tone, closer to calling someone an entitled or stereotypical older woman.”
He added that “sciura” may evoke a sense of social rigidity or conservatism as well. Some might use the term to poke fun at snobby upper-class people or those who are overly concerned with proper etiquette.
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“There can be a tongue-in-cheek undertone regarding her perceived ‘snob appeal’ or attachment to social rituals,” noted the Milanesi a Milano team.
Thus, the term can carry a slightly negative connotation around materialism in certain contexts.
“The word ‘sciura’ is mainly registered in the north of Italy, but it would not be unusual to hear it in other parts of the country to describe a certain type of outdated clothing or to comment on an outfit in a joking way,” Oddone said. “‘Fa un po’ sciura!’ ― in English, ‘it’s giving old lady vibes’ ― can be interpreted positively or negatively depending on tone and context.”
One’s perception of the “sciura” might also depend on generation.
“Older generations often use the word with a tone of affectionate irony, to describe a woman of a certain age who still cares deeply about her appearance and continues to wear her elegant, often luxurious wardrobe with confidence,” Torello said.
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For many younger people, however, the sciura represents the idea of dressing for yourself, not for others’ approval, and prioritizing authenticity over performance.
“When used thoughtfully, ‘sciura’ celebrates individuality, consistency of taste and pride in one’s roots,” said the Milanesi a Milano team. “While there is a risk of caricature, many creatives and fashion observers are reclaiming the term to highlight authenticity and the idea that elegance is built over time. In that sense, the sciura feels surprisingly contemporary.”
The popularity of the term today also allows the broader world to get a taste of something distinctly Milanese.
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“I think it’s a fun cultural stereotype that captures a Milanese woman’s personality,” said Italian teacher Margherita Berti. “Like many stereotypes, it exaggerates reality but reflects recognizable habits and style. When used playfully, it celebrates Milan’s character and humor.”
Thus, Milan’s identity and history don’t just live on in museums and monuments but also in this confident, selective, stylish and elegant way of dressing, speaking and living in the city.
“In a time when cities risk becoming interchangeable and desires increasingly shaped by global trends, the figure of the ‘sciura’ can also be read as a quiet form of resistance,” Torello said. “Her taste was not built by algorithms or seasonal drops, but through lived experience. In that sense, she stands against cultural homogenization.”
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Getty Images/Melodie Jeng/WWD/Edward Berthelot
Where To Spot A ‘Sciura Milanese’
If you want to bring a bit of sciura magic into your life, there are many ways to find inspiration ― both online and in Milan itself.
“There are Instagram pages like @sciuraglam where you can see exactly who a sciura is and how they spend their time,” Novello said, adding that they’re ”mostly shopping in ‘Montenapo’ ― Via Monte Napoleone, Milan’s most famous luxury shopping street ― or having long breakfasts in the most glamorous pastry shops, such as Marchesi.”
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Milan-based photographer Anastasia Fedoseeva echoed that there are specific places in Milan where you’re more likely to spot sciure (the plural for sciura) in person.
“I personally see them often around Piazza Risorgimento, and also at classic spots like a restaurant Sant Ambroeus or Pasticceria Cova on Via Monte Napoleone,” she said. “However, they are not usually concentrated in the most touristy areas ― they tend to stay within the neighborhoods where they have historically lived.”
For those looking for an authentic taste of the sciura lifestyle, Fedoseeva also recommended stepping off the main tourist routes of Milan and exploring the elegant residential districts like Corso Vercelli.
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“One of my favorite areas is between Porta Venezia, Cinque Giornate and Porta Romana,” she said. “There you will not only see beautiful façades and entrance halls, but also the real Milanese lifestyle in motion.”
She also suggested checking out local neighborhood markets, for instance around Piazza San Marco, for another chance to “observe sciure in their natural habitat” (and get some shopping done yourself).
But how can you be sure you’ve got the right image in mind?
“Next time you’re in Milan, sit at a café near Sant’Ambrogio and just watch,” advised Montagnari. “When you see a lady with a perfectly groomed dog and a beige trench coat that looks like it was painted on her, you’ll know exactly who you’re looking at. What was once a local dialect word has become a recognized aesthetic code worldwide: the timeless style of the Milanese bourgeoisie.”
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How To Embrace Your Inner ‘Sciura’
“You can be a ‘sciura at heart’ even in your twenties if you value quality over quantity and prefer an afternoon tea to a loud club,” Montagnari said. “It has become a philosophy of life ― taking care of oneself and the details.”
Just as you can embrace your inner sciura at any age, you also don’t have to be part of the Milanese bourgeoisie ― or even especially wealthy ― to incorporate this timeless aesthetic into your everyday style.
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“To emulate her look, one must search for clothes in second-hand and vintage shops, re-evaluating what to wear in a more sustainable way,” Oddone said.
In today’s fast-paced world, getting in touch with your inner sciura means slowing down to put care into aesthetics. The sciura look is all about finding different ways to style classic pieces that can endure the test of time. Good tailoring and impeccable grooming are also part of the picture.
“Sometimes you just want that moment ― to go to a beautiful café, to do your hair, to dress up,” Fedoseeva said. “In that sense, I find sciure very motivating! And it’s also simply very pleasant visually ― elegant women walking through the city arm-in-arm with equally well-dressed husbands, which we should not forget, as the husbands often have great classic style too. Their outfits are usually very matchy in textures and colors.”
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Ultimately, personal expression must prevail in the sciura aesthetic. Polish your look with some thoughtful accessories ― maybe a nice pair of sunglasses and/or a little silk scarf around your neck or the handles of your bag. Don’t be afraid to experiment with pops of color.
“I think it’s fun and view it as a reminder not to get lost in the whirlwind of things in terms of fashion and cultural expression, to remain true to oneself even when change is constant and would like to lead us towards a world in which we should dress the same, like and do the same things,” Oddone said.
This strong sense of identity is part of what makes the sciura so compelling. And there’s an underlying message: You don’t have to conform to expectations or abandon elegance as you age.
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“In a world shaped by overconsumption and fast fashion, the renewed interest in the ‘sciura’ feels almost countercultural,” Torello said. “She represents longevity and quality in contrast to disposable trends. Her wardrobe was built over time, with patience, investment, and personal history. Each piece carries memory, and her style tells the story of her life.”
This 2-pound dinosaur is rewriting what scientists know about evolution

Researchers have identified a 90 million year old fossil that helps solve a long standing mystery about a strange group of prehistoric animals. The discovery was led by University of Minnesota Twin Cities scientist Peter Makovicky along with Argentine paleontologist Sebastian Apesteguía.
Their findings, published in the peer reviewed journal Nature, describe a nearly complete skeleton of Alnashetri cerropoliciensis. This dinosaur belonged to a peculiar group of bird like theropods called alvarezsaurs. These animals are known for their tiny teeth and unusually short arms that end in a single enlarged thumb claw.
For decades, scientists struggled to understand this group because most well preserved fossils had been discovered in Asia. Fossils from South America were often incomplete, leaving major gaps in the evolutionary story.
Patagonia Discovery Provides a Crucial Specimen
The almost complete Alnashetri fossil was uncovered in 2014 in northern Patagonia, Argentina, at a fossil rich site famous for exceptionally preserved Cretaceous animals. The species had originally been named several years earlier based on fragmentary remains, but the new skeleton provided a far clearer view of the animal’s unusual body structure.
Preparing the specimen was a slow and careful process. Over the past decade, researchers meticulously cleaned and assembled the delicate bones to prevent damage to the small and fragile skeleton.
“Going from fragmentary skeletons that are hard to interpret, to having a near complete and articulated animal is like finding a paleontological Rosetta Stone,” said Peter Makovicky, lead author of the study and a professor in the University of Minnesota Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences. “We now have a reference point that allows us to accurately identify more scrappy finds and map out evolutionary transitions in anatomy and body size.”
The fossil is providing scientists with valuable insight into how this lineage of dinosaurs evolved, became smaller, and spread across ancient continents.
Insights Into the Evolution of Tiny Dinosaurs
The skeleton reveals that Alnashetri differed from its later relatives in several ways. It had longer arms and larger teeth, showing that some alvarezsaurs had already evolved very small body sizes before developing the specialized features that later species used for what scientists believe was an “ant-eating” diet.
Microscopic examination of the bones also showed that the animal was fully grown and at least four years old. These dinosaurs rank among the smallest known non avian dinosaurs, and they remained small throughout their lives. Even the largest members of the group only reached about the size of an average human, which is tiny compared with most dinosaurs. Alnashetri itself weighed less than 2 lbs, making it one of the smallest dinosaurs discovered in South America.
By studying additional alvarezsaur fossils preserved in museum collections across North America and Europe, the team also found evidence that these animals appeared much earlier than scientists previously believed. Their widespread distribution likely occurred when the continents were still connected as the supercontinent Pangaea. The later breakup of Earth’s landmasses explains how the animals became scattered across the globe rather than migrating across oceans.
Fossil Site Continues To Reveal Ancient Life
The well preserved skeleton came from the La Buitrera fossil area, a location that has produced many scientifically important discoveries. Previous finds from the site include early snakes and small saber toothed mammals.
“After more than 20 years of work, the La Buitrera fossil area has given us a unique insight into small dinosaurs and other vertebrates like no other site in South America,” said Apesteguía, a researcher at Universidad Maimónides in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Scientists are still actively studying fossils from the same region, and more discoveries may soon add to the story of these unusual dinosaurs.
“We have already found the next chapter of the alvarezsaurid story there, and it is in the lab being prepared right now,” added Makovicky.
International Research Team and Support
The research involved an international collaboration of scientists. In addition to Makovicky and Apesteguía, the team included Jonathan S. Mitchell from Coe College in Iowa; Jorge G. Meso and Ignacio Cerda from Instituto de Investigación, Universidad Nacional de Río Negro and Museo Provincial; and Federico A. Gianechini from Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones Biológicas de San Luis.
Funding for the research was provided by the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), The Field Museum, National Geographic, University of Minnesota, United States National Science Foundation and the Fulbright U.S. Scholar program.
Scientists may have discovered a brand-new mineral on Mars

A new study published in Nature Communications reports the detection of an iron sulfate on Mars that may represent a previously unknown mineral. Sulfur is abundant on Mars and commonly combines with other elements to create sulfate minerals. On Earth, most sulfates dissolve easily in rainwater. Mars, however, is extremely dry, allowing these minerals to persist for billions of years and preserve evidence of ancient environmental conditions.
Each mineral has its own crystal structure and physical properties. Familiar examples include gypsum and hematite. Scientists analyze data from orbiting spacecraft to identify minerals on the Martian surface and reconstruct the environmental conditions that produced them. For nearly two decades, researchers have been puzzled by layered iron sulfates on Mars that show unusual spectral signals. A new investigation led by Dr. Janice Bishop, senior research scientist at the SETI Institute and NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley, has now identified and characterized an uncommon ferric hydroxysulfate phase. The team combined laboratory experiments with orbital observations of Mars to better understand these materials. Their results provide new clues about the roles of heat, water, and chemical reactions in shaping the Martian landscape.
“We investigated two sulfate-bearing sites near the vast Valles Marineris canyon system that included mysterious spectral bands seen from orbital data, as well as layered sulfates and intriguing geology,” said Bishop.
Study Sites Near Valles Marineris
The research focused on two areas close to Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyon systems in the solar system. One location is Aram Chaos, situated northeast of the canyon system where ancient water once flowed toward lower terrain to the north. The second site lies on the plateau above Juventae Chasma, a 5-km-deep canyon located just north of Valles Marineris.
Juventae Plateau (above Juventae Chasma)
This region near the cliffs of Valles Marineris preserves signs of a wetter past. Ancient channels carved by flowing water cross the landscape. Scientists found sulfate minerals concentrated in a small low area that likely formed when pools of sulfate-rich water gradually evaporated. As the water disappeared, hydrated ferrous sulfates were left behind.
These minerals, including ferric hydroxysulfate, occur in thin layers roughly a meter thick that sit both above and below basaltic materials. Their position suggests they were later exposed to heat from lava or volcanic ash after they originally formed.
“Investigation of the morphologies and stratigraphies of these four compositional units allowed us to determine the age and formation relationships among the different units,” said Dr. Catherine Weitz, a co-author on the study and Senior Scientist at the Planetary Science Institute.
Evidence From Aram Chaos
Sulfate minerals are widespread throughout the Valles Marineris region, especially in rugged landscapes called chaotic terrains. Scientists believe these areas formed when massive floods reshaped the surface long ago. As the water evaporated, it left layered deposits of iron and magnesium sulfates that provide evidence of a much wetter Mars in the past.
In one chaos terrain that formed within an ancient impact crater, the uppermost layers contain polyhydrated sulfates. Beneath them lie layers of monohydrated sulfates and ferric hydroxysulfate.
How Heat Transformed Martian Sulfates
Each of these sulfate types has a unique spectral signature that can be detected from orbit using the CRISM instrument. At first, the arrangement of these mineral layers was difficult to explain. Laboratory experiments helped solve the puzzle. Researchers found that heating polyhydrated sulfates to 50°C converts them into monohydrated forms. When temperatures exceed 100°C, ferric hydroxysulfate forms. These results indicate that geothermal heat likely altered the minerals after they were deposited.
Polyhydrated and monohydrated sulfates appear across large areas of the region. Ferric hydroxysulfate is much rarer and occurs only in a few small locations. Scientists suspect that warmer geothermal sources once existed beneath these areas, producing the conditions needed to create this mineral. Additional deposits could remain buried under layers of monohydrated sulfates.
Laboratory Experiments Reveal Mineral Transformations
Researchers at the SETI Institute and NASA Ames performed laboratory experiments to trace how these minerals evolve. The process begins with rozenite (Fe2+SO4·4H2O), which contains four water molecules in each unit cell. Heating transforms it into szomolnokite (Fe2+SO4·H2O), which contains only one water molecule. Continued heating produces ferric hydroxysulfate, where OH replaces H2O in the mineral structure.
“Our experiments suggest that this ferric hydroxysulfate only forms when hydrated ferrous sulfates are heated in the presence of oxygen,” said postdoctoral researcher Dr. Johannes Meusburger at NASA Ames. “While the changes in the atomic structure are very small, this reaction drastically alters the way these minerals absorb infrared light, which allowed identification of this new mineral on Mars using CRISM.”
Oxygen and Chemical Reactions on Mars
This chemical reaction requires oxygen gas and generates water (Equation 1). Mars currently has a thin atmosphere dominated by CO2, yet it still contains enough oxygen for this reaction to occur and for other forms of iron to oxidize as well.
Equation 1: 4 Fe2+SO4·H2O + O2 → 4 Fe3+SO4OH + 2H2O
“The material formed in these lab experiments is likely a new mineral due to its unique crystal structure and thermal stability,” said Bishop. “However, scientists must also find it on Earth to officially recognize it as a new mineral.”
Clues to Mars’ Geological Activity
The newly identified ferric hydroxysulfate has a crystal structure similar to szomolnokite, a monohydrated ferrous sulfate. However, it appears to form more readily from rozenite, which contains four water molecules.
The transformation from hydrated ferrous sulfates to ferric hydroxysulfate occurs only when temperatures exceed 100°C, far hotter than typical Martian surface conditions. The sulfates observed at Aram Chaos and Juventae, including ferric hydroxysulfate, probably formed more recently than the surrounding terrain. Researchers suggest they may date to the Amazonian period (<3 billion years ago).
The findings indicate that volcanic heat at the Juventae Plateau and geothermal energy beneath Aram Chaos could convert common hydrated sulfates into ferric hydroxysulfate. This discovery suggests that parts of Mars have remained chemically and thermally active more recently than previously believed, offering new insights into the planet’s evolving surface and its possible ability to support life.
The paper, Characterization of Ferric Hydroxysulfate on Mars and Implications of the Geochemical Environment Supporting its Formation, is published in Nature Communications.
Cosmic voids look empty but they may be tearing the universe apart

Imagine removing everything from the deepest regions of cosmic voids. Take away ordinary matter, neutrinos, dark matter, cosmic rays, and radiation. What remains appears to be nothing but empty space. It may sound contradictory, but these enormous voids are filled with the vacuum of spacetime. And importantly, that vacuum is not truly nothing.
The vacuum of spacetime contains something fundamental. It is difficult to describe precisely with everyday language, but physicists refer to these underlying ingredients as quantum fields. In quantum field theory, the particles that make up our world such as electrons, top quarks, neutrinos, and even dark matter are not independent objects in the usual sense. What we call a particle is actually a visible expression of something deeper.
These deeper structures are the fields themselves. Every type of particle has a corresponding field. These fields permeate every cubic centimeter of space and time. They have existed since the big bang and extend throughout the entire universe.
When we observe a particle, such as an electron moving through space, we are really detecting a ripple or vibration in its underlying field. The particle is a traveling excitation of that field. Even if all particles were removed, the fields would still remain.
Vacuum Energy and the Origin of Dark Energy
These fields also contain energy. Because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principal, the vacuum cannot be completely devoid of energy. When physicists attempt to calculate how much energy exists in empty space, the results can range from extremely large values to theoretically infinite ones…which is also another episode.
What matters is that this vacuum energy produces a measurable effect. That effect is known as “dark energy,” the name scientists use to describe the accelerated expansion of the universe.
Observations show that the actual amount of vacuum energy is relatively small, though it is not zero. In most environments across the universe, its influence is negligible. Regions filled with matter completely dominate the local behavior of space.
Here on Earth, for example, matter is so dense that dark energy has no noticeable impact. If dark energy suddenly vanished, everyday physics would remain unchanged. The path of a thrown baseball would be identical. Your burrito would still cook in the microwave at exactly the same rate. Nothing about daily life would be different.
Where Dark Energy Dominates the Universe
The same situation applies across much of the cosmos. Galaxies, galaxy clusters, filaments, and walls of the cosmic web are all regions packed with matter. In these environments, dark energy plays almost no role.
Cosmic voids are different.
Voids are enormous regions where matter is largely absent. In these areas, the vacuum of space-time itself becomes the dominant influence. If you could place yourself in the middle of a cosmic void, you would effectively be surrounded by dark energy.
In fact, voids are where dark energy carries out its most important work. The accelerated expansion of the universe does not occur inside dense regions such as galaxies or clusters. Instead, it takes place within the vast empty voids.
Cosmic Voids Are Expanding
Cosmic voids are not just empty gaps between structures in the universe. They are actively growing. As dark energy pushes space outward, the voids expand and press against the surrounding cosmic web.
Over immense spans of time, this process gradually pulls the universe’s large-scale structure apart. The intricate network of galaxies, clusters, and filaments that astronomers see today will not last forever. Over the next 5-10-20 billion years the exact number doesn’t matter the cosmic web will slowly fade as expanding voids stretch everything farther apart.
Why Empty Space Is Never Truly Empty
In that sense, cosmic voids are far from empty. They are filled with the subtle energy of quantum fields. That energy influences the entire universe by driving its accelerating expansion.
Voids are the only regions where this effect becomes dominant, precisely because they contain almost nothing else.
So yes, cosmic voids are empty of matter. That is how astronomers identify and measure them. But their lack of matter means they are filled with dark energy.
Wherever you travel in the universe, whether to a nearby galaxy or to the deepest interior of the emptiest void, you will never truly be alone.




