Half a century on, the story looks more complicated. Pauling was wrong in important ways, but he was not entirely wrong. Modern research is giving vitamin C a second look in cancer, and it turns out that under certain conditions it can behave less like a gentle vitamin and more like a drug.

Pauling’s vitamin C story began in the 1970s, when he teamed up with the Scottish doctor Ewan Cameron and gave patients with advanced, incurable cancer very large amounts of vitamin C – first as a drip into a vein, then as tablets. Compared with similar patients who did not get vitamin C, they reported that the vitamin‑treated group lived longer and felt better. For some, they suggested, survival could be several times longer.

Two large trials, run by the Mayo Clinic, a leading non-profit medical center in the US, then put this to the test. The results were clear: there was no benefit.

Patients who took vitamin C pills lived no longer than those who didn’t. For most oncologists, that was the end of the matter. Vitamin C was filed away with other “alternative” remedies, and Pauling’s late-career crusade was widely seen as a sad mistake.

What neither trial’s critics nor defenders noticed at the time: Pauling and Cameron had started with vitamin C into a vein; the Mayo Clinic trials used tablets only. That matters because the gut can only absorb so much vitamin C. Once you reach a modest daily dose, the body simply stops taking in much more. Swallow as many tablets as you like, and the level of vitamin C in your blood levels off.

By contrast, a drip into a vein can raise blood levels to tens or even hundreds of times higher than tablets ever could. At those extreme levels, vitamin C starts to behave differently inside the body.

At everyday levels, vitamin C acts as an antioxidant: it mops up harmful molecules and protects our cells. At very high levels, especially around tumors, it can flip roles.

In laboratory studies, high-dose vitamin C helps generate hydrogen peroxide, a reactive substance that can damage cells. Cancer cells seem especially vulnerable because they are already under stress. They grow rapidly, often in areas with poor blood supply, and produce lots of reactive molecules of their own. Their internal “cleanup” systems are stretched thin.

Add a sudden pulse of hydrogen peroxide and many cancer cells tip over the edge: their DNA and energy machinery are damaged and they die. Normal cells, which are under less strain and have better defenses, are more likely to survive. In this way, very high doses of vitamin C behave less like a daily supplement and more like a weak, selective chemotherapy drug. Crucially, the doses needed for this effect cannot be reached with tablets.

What the latest evidence shows

In people, the evidence is still early and mixed. Small trials have given high-dose vitamin C through a vein to patients with hard-to-treat cancers such as ovarian, pancreatic or brain tumors. So far, many patients can receive large doses several times a week without serious side-effects. Problems can occur, especially in people with poor kidney function or rare inherited conditions, which is why this is not a harmless wellness drip to be sold on the high street.

A few studies suggest that adding vitamin C infusions to chemotherapy may help some patients live a little longer or help with side-effects, but other studies show no clear benefit. The trials are small and varied, so we cannot draw firm conclusions.

One consistent signal is quality of life: patients given vitamin C alongside chemotherapy often report less fatigue, less pain and fewer side-effects, such as nausea. For someone with advanced cancer, that matters, even if it is not the sweeping cure Pauling once promised.

Lab work also hints at subtler roles. Vitamin C is involved in enzymes that influence how our DNA is “marked” and read, and in how cells divide and respond to low oxygen – important in cancer behavior.

In some experiments, high vitamin C levels make cancer cells grow less aggressively and make them more sensitive to treatment. There are even early suggestions that vitamin C may help the immune system recognize and attack tumors, though this remains speculative.

Partly right

So, was Pauling right after all? The fairest answer is that he was partly right, for reasons he did not fully understand, and he exaggerated the promise. He was wrong to promote vitamin C tablets as a powerful cure for cancer. Large, careful trials have not found that swallowing high-dose vitamin C helps people with established cancer live longer. He was also wrong to present vitamin C as a near-universal remedy for many illnesses.

But he was not entirely wrong to suspect that vitamin C might have a special role in cancer treatment. He sensed, long before we could prove it, that very high doses given into a vein would behave quite differently from ordinary supplements.

Modern research has confirmed that intravenous vitamin C reaches much higher levels in the blood and has distinct biological effects. What we do not yet have are large, definitive randomized trials showing that high-dose intravenous vitamin C clearly prolongs life for most cancer patients. Until we do, it should be seen as experimental – promising enough to study, but not proven enough to replace standard therapies. Any use belongs in clinical trials or in carefully supervised medical settings, not in clinics selling expensive “immune boosts.”

The “vitamins in cancer” story continues to evolve. If the story of vitamin C and cancer teaches us anything, it is that science rarely moves in straight lines. A bold idea, some flawed early studies, a fierce backlash – and then, years later, a quieter, more careful return to the question.

Pauling may never be fully vindicated, but neither was he simply deluded. In his enthusiasm, he may have glimpsed a sliver of truth long before the rest of us knew how to look for it.

The research was led by Jan Schmutz, a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Zurich, and Andrea Cantisani, a psychiatrist and research associate at the University of Bern. Concordia Station is among the most remote places on Earth, with winter temperatures falling as low as minus 80 °C (-112 °F). Its isolation makes it one of the strongest real-world stand-ins for future extended missions to the Moon or Mars.

Tracking Social Changes in Extreme Isolation

The mission included 12 crew members, who completed questionnaires at four points during the ten-month period. They also wore sensors that automatically measured when they were physically close to other team members and how long those encounters lasted.

By combining the questionnaire responses with the sensor data, the researchers were able to follow changes in loneliness, trust, conflict, social relationships, team cohesion, and perceived performance throughout the mission.

More Contact Did Not Always Help

One of the most notable findings was that spending more time near other crew members was not consistently linked to better social outcomes. Participants who had more frequent contact with others were also more likely to report increased conflict, greater mistrust, and lower performance.

The results suggest that constant closeness can become another source of pressure in highly confined environments. Isolation may be difficult, but having little opportunity for privacy can also create strain.

“In small teams under extreme conditions, more contact doesn’t automatically equate to social support, but can actually increase tensions,” says Jan Schmutz.

The researchers caution that the study found correlations and cannot establish cause and effect. For instance, people who felt lonely may have sought out more interaction, even when those encounters did not provide the support they needed.

Crew Members Formed Smaller Social Groups

The wearable sensors also showed that the crew gradually separated into smaller subgroups as the mission continued. People increasingly spent time with colleagues who shared their language or nationality.

These connections may help individuals feel supported and grounded during stressful periods. However, they may also encourage social divisions and weaken unity within culturally diverse teams.

Lessons for Future Moon and Mars Missions

The findings could be especially important for future space missions in which small crews must live and work together for months or years. Astronauts on extended missions may have very little privacy and only limited communication with people outside the spacecraft or habitat.

The results may also apply to other demanding environments, including submarines, offshore oil platforms, and remote research stations.

“The results show how important it is to identify social dynamics early on and provide teams with targeted support,” says Schmutz.

Wearable Sensors Worked in Harsh Conditions

The study also showed that wearable proximity sensors can operate reliably in extreme environments. These devices allowed researchers to monitor changes in everyday social patterns without substantially disrupting the crew’s routines.

Future studies will look more closely at which types of social interaction help relieve stress and which ones may add to it.

Genetic material recovered from internal tissues included bacteria that were part of Ötzi’s original gut flora. The team also made an unexpected discovery: cold-adapted yeast species that likely came from the glacier and have remained on the mummy into the present day. These organisms may eventually prove useful in industrial processes.

The findings were published in the journal Microbiome.

Tracing Ötzi’s Ancient and Modern Microbes

The investigation included a wide range of samples. Researchers studied ice collected from the mummy’s surface, meltwater from inside the body, and material gathered with numerous swabs. They also used previously available data from intestinal tissue and stomach contents.

To identify possible environmental sources, the scientists examined a soil sample taken from the discovery site during Ötzi’s recovery in 1991. The sample had remained frozen since it was collected.

Researchers found genetic evidence of Ötzi’s original gut microbiome in both his intestinal tract and stomach contents. This microbial community was first documented in a 2019 study conducted with Eurac Research.

Ötzi’s gut flora closely resembles the limited number of known microbiomes from early human populations. Many of these bacteria are rarely found in people living in modern industrialized societies. As a result, the mummy provides an unusual window into the microbial communities that once inhabited the human body.

Cold-Adapted Yeasts From the Glacier

The newly identified yeasts came from skin samples, meltwater inside the mummy, and stomach content samples. These highly specialized organisms are adapted to survive in cold environments.

Genetic testing showed that the yeasts are related to strains found in extremely cold places, including Antarctica. This connection supports the idea that they originated in the glacier and may have remained associated with Ötzi for thousands of years.

The scientists detected both heavily degraded (ancient) and well-preserved (modern) DNA. This combination suggests that the microorganisms are not simply biological remains from the distant past. They continue to exist under the mummy’s current storage conditions, which include a temperature of minus six degrees Celsius and high humidity. Some may be surviving in a dormant state.

“We see continuity here,” explains Frank Maixner, director of the Institute for Mummy Studies at Eurac Research: “These yeasts have accompanied Ötzi on his long journey through the millennia.”

According to Maixner, the results show that the mummy is “not a static relic, but a dynamic biological system.”

Past Conservation May Have Fed Some Yeasts

Earlier preservation treatments may have accidentally created favorable conditions for certain microorganisms. Three of the four yeast species have the genetic ability to break down phenol.

Phenol was used after Ötzi’s recovery to remove fungal growth from the surface of the mummy. The yeasts may have been capable of using the substance as a source of food.

“A mummy’s microbiome is unique because we are dealing with microbes that are over 5,000 years old and, at the same time, with modern microbes that have been introduced since the discovery,” says microbiologist and lead author Mohamed S. Sarhan.

Protecting Ötzi for Future Generations

The South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology oversees the preservation of the mummy and continuously monitors its condition.

“The mummy’s conservation conditions are very stable today,” comments Elisabeth Vallazza, director of the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology that oversees the mummy’s conservation, “close microbiological monitoring ensures that the mummy suffers no damage. But further research and full conservation efforts are certainly needed to preserve it for many more generations.”

Scientists still do not completely understand how glacial mummies remain preserved over such long periods.

Conservation expert and co-author Marco Samadelli emphasizes: “The conditions under which glacial mummies are preserved are not yet fully understood. This study expands our knowledge in this area.”

Potential Uses in Low Temperature Industry

The research could contribute to improved methods for preserving Ötzi and other ancient remains. It may also lead to practical applications beyond archaeology.

Cold-adapted microorganisms can function at temperatures that would slow or stop many other species. They could therefore support industrial processes that require less energy, including fermentation performed at low temperatures.