The research, which relied on lab grown retinal tissue, was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Lab Grown Retinas Reveal How Sharp Vision Forms

“This is a key step toward understanding the inner workings of the center of the retina, a critical part of the eye and the first to fail in people with macular degeneration,” said Robert J. Johnston Jr., an associate professor of biology at Johns Hopkins who led the research. “By better understanding this region and developing organoids that mimic its function, we hope to one day grow and transplant these tissues to restore vision.”

To investigate how the human eye develops, the researchers used organoids, small clusters of tissue grown from fetal cells that closely mimic parts of the retina. After observing these lab grown retinas over several months, the team identified the cellular events that shape the foveola, the tiny region at the center of the retina responsible for the sharpest vision.

The study focused on cone photoreceptors, the light sensing cells that provide daytime and color vision. These cells eventually become blue, green, or red cones, each responding to different wavelengths of light. Although the foveola makes up only a small portion of the retina, it is responsible for about half of all human visual perception. Unlike the rest of the retina, where all three cone types are present, the foveola contains only red and green cones.

A Surprising Transformation of Cone Cells

Humans are unusual in having three different cone types that together allow a broad range of color vision. Exactly how this specialized pattern develops has remained a mystery for decades. According to Johnston, scientists have struggled to study this process because common research animals such as mice and fish do not develop the same arrangement of photoreceptor cells.

The new findings suggest that the cone pattern in the foveola is established through a coordinated sequence of events early in fetal development. During weeks 10 through 12, a small number of blue cones appear in the developing foveola. By week 14, however, those cells have changed into red and green cones.

The researchers found that this happens through two separate mechanisms. First, retinoic acid, a molecule derived from vitamin A, is broken down, reducing the formation of new blue cones. Then thyroid hormones drive the remaining blue cones to convert into red and green cones.

“First, retinoic acid helps set the pattern. Then, thyroid hormone plays a role in converting the leftover cells,” Johnston said. “That’s very important because if you have those blue cones in there, you don’t see as well.”

Challenging a Longstanding Theory

The results offer a new explanation for a question that has puzzled vision researchers for decades. The prevailing theory suggested that blue cones formed in the center of the retina and later migrated outward. Instead, the new evidence indicates those cells remain in place but change their identity into red and green cones, producing the specialized arrangement needed for sharp vision.

“The main model in the field from about 30 years ago was that somehow the few blue cones you get in that region just move out of the way, that these cells decide what they’re going to be, and they remain this type of cell forever,” Johnston said. “We can’t really rule that out yet, but our data supports a different model. These cells actually convert over time, which is really surprising.”

Potential for Future Vision Restoration

The researchers believe these discoveries could eventually support new approaches to treating vision loss. Johnston’s team is continuing to improve its retinal organoids so they more closely resemble the function of the human retina. Better models could help scientists produce healthier photoreceptor cells for future cell replacement therapies targeting diseases such as macular degeneration, which currently has no cure.

“The goal with using this organoid tech is to eventually make an almost made-to-order population of photoreceptors. A big avenue of potential is cell replacement therapy to introduce healthy cells that can reintegrate into the eye and potentially restore that lost vision,” said Hussey, who is now a molecular and cell biologist at cell therapy company CiRC Biosciences in Chicago. “These are very long-term experiments, and of course we’d need to do optimizations for safety and efficacy studies prior to moving into the clinic. But it’s a viable journey.”

Until now, every confirmed video or observation of a live goblin shark came only after the animal had been accidentally caught on a fishing line and brought to the surface. Divers could briefly examine the sharks, but the animals typically died soon afterward. The new research, published in the Journal of Fish Biology, reports two healthy goblin sharks observed in the wild. One was seen near a seamount close to Jarvis Island, while the other was recorded along the slope of the Tonga Trench.

Often described as “living fossils,” goblin sharks are the sole surviving members of a shark family that dates back nearly 125 million years. The newly documented encounters significantly expand both the species’ known geographic distribution and the depths at which it is known to live.

Goblin Shark Breaks Depth Record

“Seeing the most iconic of all the deep-sea sharks alive and looking healthy in its natural habitat is a unique honor,” said Aaron Judah, lead author of the paper and doctoral candidate working in the Deep-Sea Fish Ecology Lab and Deep-Sea Animal Research Center (DARC) in the Department of Oceanography at the UH Mānoa School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. “I was also very surprised about how deep this species was found. The observation from the slope of the Tonga Trench is nearly 700 meters deeper than this species was known to live.”

Judah explained that the Tonga Trench sighting also establishes a new depth record for the entire order of Lamniformes, also known as the mackerel sharks. This group includes familiar species such as the great white shark, basking shark, and mako shark.

Before these discoveries, goblin sharks were known only from relatively limited regions off the western United States, Australia, and Japan in the Pacific Ocean, along with small areas of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The two new sightings, both from the Central Pacific, greatly expand the species’ known range.

Archived Footage Reveals a Hidden Discovery

The first observation came to light after Judah spoke with colleagues at DARC in 2025. They mentioned a possible goblin shark recorded during a 2019 Ocean Exploration Trust expedition aboard the E/V Nautilus, which explored deep sea ecosystems around Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll, and Jarvis Island within the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

“I was shocked to hear this because this species was not to be known to be in the Central Pacific,” said Judah.

The expedition used the remotely operated vehicle Hercules, which recorded extensive video footage that was later archived for public access and annotated by researchers at UH Mānoa. After reviewing the recordings, Judah confirmed that a goblin shark had indeed been captured on video during a livestreamed dive at an unnamed seamount northwest of Jarvis Island. (See video link after the article below.)

Second Sighting Confirms Expanded Range

The second encounter occurred during a 2024 expedition to the Tonga Trench aboard the R/V Dagon as part of the Inkfish Open Ocean Expedition, led by scientists from the Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Center. A baited camera mounted on a bottom lander captured rare footage of another goblin shark swimming freely in its natural environment.

“The Goblin Shark is one of these deep-sea charismatic animals that I never thought we’d see alive, and then to do so was amazing, but to then learn that colleagues in Hawai’i also saw one was just incredible,” said Alan Jamieson, professor and founding director at Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Center and study co-author who documented the 2024 sighting.

Why These Discoveries Matter

Judah said the findings demonstrate why traditional natural history research remains essential, especially in the deep ocean, where many species are still poorly understood.

“It is really important that we still perform natural history work,” Judah emphasized. “New discoveries like this demonstrate that there is still so much to explore in our deep ocean home. Given the newly-expanded geographic range of the goblin shark, this species can be included in regional management and a nationʻs biodiversity list, whereas, beforehand we didnʻt know it was even there!”

DNA analysis revealed that the people buried before and after the collapse were not closely related, indicating that the original population largely disappeared and was replaced by newcomers.

“We see a clear genetic break between the two periods,” said Frederik Valeur Seersholm, assistant professor at the Globe Institute at the University of Copenhagen and one of the lead authors of the study.

“The earlier group resembles Stone Age farming populations from northern France and Germany, while the later group shows strong genetic links to southern France and the Iberian Peninsula.”

The results suggest that the local population shrank dramatically before new groups migrated north and settled in the region.

Ancient Disease and Signs of Crisis

To investigate what may have caused the decline, the researchers used a DNA technique that examines all genetic material preserved in ancient bones. This allowed them to identify traces of several pathogens, including Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for plague, and Borrelia recurrentis, which causes louse borne relapsing fever.

Although plague was present, the researchers say it does not fully explain what happened.

“We can confirm that plague was present, but the evidence does not support it as the sole cause of the population collapse,” said Martin Sikora, associate professor at the University of Copenhagen and senior author of the study. “The decline was likely driven by a combination of disease, environmental stress and other disruptive events.”

The skeletal remains also point to an unusually severe crisis. Archaeologists found exceptionally high mortality during the earlier burial period, especially among children and young people.

“The demographic pattern is a strong indicator of crisis,” said Laure Salanova, research director at France’s National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).

DNA Reveals Changes in Stone Age Society

The genetic evidence also shows that the population replacement was accompanied by significant social changes.

During the earlier period, the tomb contained multiple generations of the same extended families, suggesting closely connected communities that buried relatives together over time. In the later period, burials became much more selective and were dominated by a single male lineage, indicating a different social organization.

“This indicates that the population change was accompanied by a shift in how society was structured,” Seersholm said.

A Clue to the End of Europe’s Megalith Builders

The findings add to growing evidence that the Neolithic population decline affected large parts of northern and western Europe, extending well beyond Scandinavia and northern Germany.

The study may also help explain why the construction of megalithic tombs and other massive stone monuments came to an end across Europe during roughly the same period.

“We now see that end of these monumental constructions coincides with the disappearance of the population that built them,” Seersholm said.

The advent of the injectable weight-loss drug semaglutide (known better by its brand names Wegovy and Ozempic) marked a distinct shift in the weight-loss drugs market when it became available just a few years ago.

Semaglutide is a class of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) medication. These drugs mimic the gut hormone GLP-1, which is released soon after eating. This hormone signals fullness to the brain, slowing digestion and stimulating the release of insulin. By replicating the action of this hormone, GLP-1 drugs have proven highly effective at managing type 2 diabetes and promoting weight loss.

Although semaglutide is widely used, a key issue with the drug is that it needs to be injected into the belly, thighs or back of the arm. This can make it difficult for patients with needle phobia or who don’t want to self-inject due to the inconvenience.

Another logistical issue with injectable GLP-1 drugs is that they require refrigeration throughout the supply chain. This can pose a challenge in low- and middle-income countries.

It’s for these reasons that researchers and developers have started investigating the efficacy of oral versions of semaglutide.

Based on current research, it appears that oral semaglutide is very effective. However, it must be taken on an empty stomach – and users must wait 30 minutes before eating or drinking.

Alongside being expensive to produce, it also has poor bioavailability compared with injectable semaglutide. This means only about 1% of the ingested drug is absorbed and able to exert its effects.

But a recent phase 3 clinical trial has shown that a new type of oral weight-loss pill may have overcome these issues – proving to be more effective than the current oral semaglutide products on the market.

Oral weight-loss pill

The recent 52-week phase 3 trial involved 1,698 adults with type 2 diabetes across six countries. It set out to compare current oral semaglutide products against orforglipron, which is also taken as a daily tablet.

The primary measure researchers were looking for was a reduction in HbA1c. This blood test reflecting average blood sugar levels over three months is the standard indicator of diabetes control. Diabetes is present if HbA1c is 6.5% or more.

From a baseline average HbA1c of 8.3%, it was found that after 52 weeks, orforglipron was able to reduce this value by an average of 1.71–1.91%. In comparison, oral semaglutide only reduced HbA1c by 1.47%.

Not only did orforglipron meet the trial’s goals of proving it was as effective to oral semaglutide, it proved it was superior for lowering blood sugar. The participants who took orforglipron also lost more weight – an average of 6.1kg-8.2kg, compared with 5.3kg in those taking semaglutide.

However, a key issue highlighted by the trial was one of tolerability.

GLP-1 drugs can cause gastrointestinal side-effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and constipation. In this latest trial, around 59% of participants on orforglipron reported such symptoms, compared with 37–45% on semaglutide.

The reason for this difference may be the more prominent, daily peak drug concentrations with orforglipron. The consequence was that around 10% of orforglipron participants discontinued treatment due to adverse effects. Just 4-5% of those taking semaglutide discontinued treatment.

No head-to-head trials have been done of injectable GLP-1 versus orforglipron. However, the weight loss seen in this study of people with type 2 diabetes is broadly comparable with that previously observed with injectable GLP-1.

Market implications

The trial’s results show that orforglipron, which was developed by Eli Lilly, can be considered one of semaglutide’s most credible challengers.

Another remarkable thing about orforglipron is that it belongs to a new category of drugs called small-molecule drugs. This means it’s a synthetic chemical compound small enough to be absorbed directly through the gut wall. There, it’s able to act on GLP-1 receptors, even though it isn’t of a similar structure to a GLP-1 hormone.

Oral semaglutide, on the other hand, is a peptide drug. This means the structure of its amino acids (one of the building blocks of protein) closely resembles that of the natural GLP-1 hormone.

As a small-molecule drug, orforglipron is cheaper and simpler to manufacture than peptide-based drugs such as semaglutide.

And as with oral semaglutide, it requires no refrigeration. This gives it a logistical advantage over injectable GLP-1 formulations – a potentially important consideration for expanding access in low- and middle-income countries, where cold chain infrastructure is unreliable.

It remains to be seen, however, how orforglipron will perform against oral semaglutide in the broader market.

Although this latest trial has shown it is superior for controlling blood sugar and aiding weight loss, its higher rate of side-effects and treatment discontinuation may temper enthusiasm. In a crowded and competitive market, long-term adherence – shaped as much by tolerability as by efficacy – is probably a critical differentiator.

Orforglipron is still undergoing trials in patients with obesity but without diabetes.

If those two processes could be separated, however, engineers could direct heat much more precisely. A material could absorb thermal energy from one direction while releasing it in another, potentially improving thermal management, energy conversion, infrared sensing, and thermal communication technologies.

A Material That Can Control Heat

To overcome this limitation, an international team led by Professor Koichi Okamoto and Dr. Shunsuke Murai of Osaka Metropolitan University’s Graduate School of Engineering developed a new type of device using magneto-optical materials. These materials change the way they interact with light when exposed to a magnetic field, making it possible to alter their thermal behavior.

The researchers paired a magneto-optical material with a phase change material known as GST. The resulting device can control the direction in which heat is radiated, switch that behavior on or off, and retain its configuration even after the power has been turned off. In effect, it allows heat to be programmed in a way that resembles how data is stored and controlled inside a computer chip.

“We made heat radiation behave in a ‘smarter’ way,” Dr. Murai explained. “Achieving these capabilities in a working model could enable a new generation of efficient infrared emitters, thermal-energy devices, sensors, and photonic memory technologies.”

Better Performance Than Earlier Designs

The team found that the device responded differently depending on the direction from which light arrived, even when the light struck it almost straight on. Earlier technologies typically required light to hit the material at very steep angles to achieve similar effects, reducing both absorption and radiation efficiency compared with normal incidence.

The new design also addressed other shortcomings of previous systems. Earlier devices produced inconsistent switching between their “on” and “off” states, and they lost their stored configuration once power was removed. In contrast, the new material can reliably switch states while preserving its memory, making it far more practical for future applications.

Toward Programmable Thermal Devices

The researchers see this technology as an important step toward devices that manage heat with the same level of precision that electronic circuits use to control electricity.

“Our ultimate goal is to develop compact devices that can actively control heat radiation, much like electronic circuits control the flow of electricity,” Professor Okamoto said. “Such devices could be used in smarter infrared sensors, more efficient energy systems, and new types of photonic memory that store information using light and heat instead of electrical charges.”