A research effort led by Dr. Atsuki Shinbori of Nagoya University’s Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research gathered direct observations during the storm and produced the first detailed view of how such an event squeezes Earth’s plasmasphere (a protective region of charged particles surrounding the planet). The results, published in Earth, Planets and Space, show how both the plasmasphere and the ionosphere respond during intense solar disturbances and offer insight that can improve predictions of satellite disruptions, GPS problems, and communication issues caused by extreme space weather.

Arase Satellite Captures a Rare Plasmasphere Collapse

Launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in 2016, the Arase satellite travels through Earth’s plasmasphere and measures plasma waves and magnetic fields. During the May 2024 superstorm, it happened to be in an ideal position to record the severe compression of the plasmasphere and the long, slow recovery that followed. This marked the first time scientists had continuous, direct data showing the plasmasphere contracting to such a low altitude during a superstorm.

“We tracked changes in the plasmasphere using the Arase satellite and used ground-based GPS receivers to monitor the ionosphere — the source of charged particles that refill the plasmasphere. Monitoring both layers showed us how dramatically the plasmasphere contracted and why recovery took so long,” Dr. Shinbori explained.

Superstorm Pushes Plasmasphere to Record-Low Altitudes

The plasmasphere works with Earth’s magnetic field to help block harmful charged particles from the Sun and deep space, offering natural protection for satellites and other technology. Under normal conditions, this region stretches far from Earth, but the May storm forced its outer edge inward from about 44,000 km above the surface to only 9,600 km.

The storm formed after several major eruptions on the Sun released billions of tons of charged particles toward Earth. Within just nine hours, the plasmasphere was compressed to roughly one-fifth of its usual size. Its recovery was unusually slow, requiring more than four days to refill, which is the longest recovery time recorded since Arase began monitoring the region in 2017.

“We found that the storm first caused intense heating near the poles, but later this led to a big drop in charged particles across the ionosphere, which slowed recovery. This prolonged disruption can affect GPS accuracy, interfere with satellite operations, and complicate space weather forecasting,” Dr. Shinbori noted.

Superstorm Pushes Auroras Farther Toward the Equator

During the peak of the storm, the Sun’s activity compressed Earth’s magnetic field so strongly that charged particles were able to travel much farther along magnetic field lines toward the equator. As a result, vivid auroras appeared in places that rarely experience them.

Auroras normally occur near the poles because Earth’s magnetic field channels solar particles into the atmosphere there. This storm was powerful enough to shift the auroral zone far beyond its usual location near the Arctic and Antarctic circles, producing displays in mid-latitude regions such as Japan, Mexico, and southern Europe — areas where auroras are seldom seen. Stronger geomagnetic storms allow the lights to reach increasingly equatorial regions.

Negative Storms Slow the Plasmasphere’s Return to Normal

About an hour after the superstorm arrived, charged particles surged through Earth’s upper atmosphere at high latitudes and flowed toward the polar cap. As the storm weakened, the plasmasphere began to replenish with particles supplied by the ionosphere.

This refill process usually takes only a day or two, but in this case the recovery stretched out to four days because of a phenomenon known as a negative storm. In a negative storm, particle levels in the ionosphere drop sharply over large areas when intense heating alters atmospheric chemistry. This reduces oxygen ions that help create hydrogen particles needed to restore the plasmasphere. Negative storms are invisible and can only be detected using satellites.

“The negative storm slowed recovery by altering atmospheric chemistry and cutting off the supply of particles to the plasmasphere. This link between negative storms and delayed recovery had never been clearly observed before,” Dr. Shinbori said.

Why These Findings Matter for Space Weather and Technology

These results provide a clearer understanding of how the plasmasphere changes during a severe solar storm and how energy moves through this region of space. Several satellites experienced electrical problems or stopped transmitting data during the event, GPS signals became less accurate, and radio communications were disrupted. Knowing how long Earth’s plasma layer takes to recover from such disturbances is essential for predicting future space weather and for protecting the technology that relies on stable conditions in near-Earth space.

Modern sharks trace their roots back more than 400 million years, yet the branches that eventually produced today’s species originated during the Age of Dinosaurs. The oldest fossils representing these modern lineages date to about 135 million years ago. These early sharks, known as lamniforms, were small and may have measured only around 1 m (~3 feet) in length. Over millions of years they evolved into much larger forms, including the enormous ‘Megalodon’, which may have exceeded 17 m (56 feet), and the modern Great White shark, an apex-predator that reaches about 6 m (20 feet).

Why Shark Fossils Are Mostly Teeth

Because sharks possess skeletons made of cartilage, their bodies rarely fossilize. As a result, most of what survives are their teeth, which are shed continuously and accumulate on ancient sea floors. These teeth commonly appear in sedimentary rocks alongside the bones and teeth of fishes and the giant marine reptiles that dominated many prehistoric ocean ecosystems.

The rocky shores near today’s city of Darwin in northern Australia were once part of the mud-covered floor of the Tethys ocean, a vast body of water that extended from Gondwana (now Australia) to the island chains of Laurasia (now Europe). Numerous remains of ancient marine life have been uncovered here, including plesiosaurs (long-necked marine reptile resembling the popular image of the Loch Ness monster), ichthyosaurs (‘fish-lizards’), and large bony fish. Among the most remarkable discoveries are several huge vertebrae that indicate the presence of a very large lamniform shark.

Revealing the Early Giant: Cardabiodontid Characteristics

Five vertebrae have been recovered, each partly mineralized, which helped preserve them. Their structure is almost identical to that of today’s Great White shark. However, while adult Great Whites have vertebrae about 8 cm wide, the vertebrae from the Darwin shark exceed 12 cm in diameter. Their features clearly link them to a cardabiodontid, a group of giant predatory sharks that inhabited the oceans around 100 million years ago. The Darwin specimen is especially notable because it is roughly 15 million years older than other known cardabiodontids and had already reached the extremely large size typical of the group.

To determine the body size of this early modern shark mega-predator, a team of researchers from multiple fields collaborated on a detailed analysis. The group included paleontologists and specialists in tomography from the U.S.A. Sweden, and Australia, as well as ichthyologists from South Africa and the U.S.A.

The findings appear in the Nature portfolio journal Communications Biology. Fossils of ancient sharks from the Age of Dinosaurs can be viewed by the public at the Swedish Museum of Natural History.

“We discovered that deep faults can heal themselves within hours,” said Amanda Thomas, professor of earth and planetary sciences at UC Davis and corresponding author on the paper. “This prompts us to reevaluate fault rheological behavior, and if we have been neglecting something very important.”

Slow Slip Events and Shifting Stress

Thomas, UC Davis colleague Professor James Watkins and their team investigated slow slip events, or SSEs, which resemble extremely slow earthquakes.

Regular earthquakes happen when stresses that accumulate as tectonic plates grind together over centuries or millennia are suddenly released, creating intense shaking that lasts only seconds.

Around 2002, Thomas said, researchers identified a different kind of seismic activity. In a slow slip event, stresses that build for months to years are relieved in movements of only a few centimeters that occur gradually over days, weeks or months.

Repeating Slip in the Cascadia Subduction Zone

To better understand these deep events, the team examined seismic data from the Cascadia Subduction Zone in the Pacific Northwest, where the Juan de Fuca plate is sliding beneath the North American plate. Slow slip events here do not behave like typical earthquakes. The same fault segment can slip again within hours or days, which indicates the fault has partially regained strength and that stress has returned very quickly.

Thomas noted that even small tidal forces reveal how rapidly stress can rebuild. The gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon affects the Earth’s crust just as it influences ocean tides. In addition, the shifting weight of seawater also applies pressure to the rocks below.

The remaining question is how the fault manages to recover so quickly.

High-Pressure Experiments Reveal Rapid Healing

Watkins, a geochemist who specializes in the behavior of minerals at high temperature and pressure, used laboratory equipment capable of simulating the conditions found deep in the crust or beneath a volcano.

To recreate the aftermath of a slow slip event, Watkins and Thomas packed powdered quartz into a silver cylinder, sealed it, and placed it under 1 Gigapascal of pressure (10,000 times atmospheric pressure) at 500 degrees Celsius.

“We’re simulating what happens in the aftermath of a slow slip event,” Watkins said. “We cook it and look at it.”

The researchers measured the speed of soundwaves traveling through the treated quartz, then opened the cylinders and examined the samples using electron microscopy.

They found that the mineral grains had welded back together during compression.

“It’s like quick set fault glue,” Thomas said. “It’s really fast and you can get significant strength recovery.”

Cohesion May Play a Larger Role Than Expected

This ability of faults to regain strength, known as cohesion, may be significant in other tectonic environments as well, including shallower systems and regions responsible for large earthquakes.

“Cohesion is neglected in most models,” Thomas said. “Under certain conditions, cohesion may be more important than we thought.”

Thomas and Watkins recently received a new National Science Foundation grant to expand their investigation of cohesion in earthquake faults.

“It links events on the microscopic scale to major thrust earthquakes on a scale of hundreds of kilometers,” Watkins said.

Additional contributors to the study include Nicholas Beeler, U.S. Geological Survey; Melodie French, Rice University; Whitney Behr, ETH Zürich, Switzerland and Mark Reed, University of Oregon.

Previous research has already established that smoking raises the likelihood of cardiovascular disease, but the connection between smoking intensity and specific health consequences has been harder to clarify, particularly for light smokers. As more individuals smoke fewer cigarettes than in past decades, understanding both the risks tied to low-intensity smoking and the long-term benefits of quitting has become increasingly important, even for people who do not consider themselves heavy smokers.

Large Multi-Study Review Reveals Long-Term Damage

Blaha’s group examined information from more than 300,000 adults who participated in 22 longitudinal studies (which follow individuals over extended periods) for as long as 19.9 years. During that time, more than 125,000 deaths and 54,000 cardiovascular events were recorded, including heart attacks, strokes and heart failure. The results showed that smoking only two to five cigarettes per day was linked to a 50 percent higher risk of heart failure and a 60 percent higher risk of death from any cause compared with people who had never smoked. The greatest reduction in cardiovascular risk occurred within the first 10 years after quitting and continued to improve the longer a person remained smoke-free. Even so, former smokers still had higher risk levels than lifelong non-smokers for as long as three decades after they quit.

Quitting Completely Offers the Strongest Protection

Because even occasional or low-level smoking can sharply increase the chance of heart disease and premature death, the researchers emphasize that stopping entirely at a younger age is the most effective way to reduce long-term harm. Simply cutting back on the number of cigarettes smoked each day does not provide the same protective benefits. These findings support long-standing public health recommendations that encourage early and complete cessation and highlight the need for robust smoking prevention efforts.

Researchers Stress the Impact of Early Cessation

The authors add, “This is one of the largest studies of cigarette smoking to date using the highest quality data in the cardiovascular epidemiology literature. It is remarkable how harmful smoking is — even low doses of smoking confer large cardiovascular risks. As far as behavior change, it is imperative to quit smoking as early in life as possible, as the among of time passed since complete cessation from cigarettes is more important prolonged exposure to a lower quantity of cigarettes each day.”

“There is a popular demand for better and more sustainable protein for food,” says corresponding author Xiao Liu of Jiangnan University in Wuxi, China. “We successfully made a fungus not only more nutritious but also more environmentally friendly by tweaking its genes.”

Sustainable Protein and the Need for Alternatives

Animal agriculture accounts for about 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions. It also requires large amounts of land and fresh water, both of which are increasingly strained by climate change and human activity. Because of these challenges, microbial proteins found in yeast and fungi have gained attention as promising alternatives to meat.

Among the many mycoprotein sources studied so far, the fungus Fusarium venenatum has become a prominent choice because its natural flavor and texture closely mimic meat. It has already been approved for consumption in several regions, including the United Kingdom, China, and the United States.

Why Fusarium venenatum Needed Improvement

Even with its advantages, Fusarium venenatum has thick cell walls that limit how well humans can digest it. Producing it is also resource intensive. Growing even modest quantities of mycoprotein requires significant inputs, and the spores must be cultivated in large metal tanks filled with sugar-rich feedstock and added nutrients such as ammonium sulfate.

Liu and his colleagues wanted to determine whether CRISPR could make this fungus easier to digest and more efficient to grow while still avoiding the introduction of foreign DNA into the organism.

Key Gene Edits That Boost Efficiency

To explore this approach, the researchers removed two genes linked to the enzymes chitin synthase and pyruvate decarboxylase. Removing the chitin synthase gene resulted in a thinner cell wall, which made the internal protein more accessible for digestion. The deletion of the pyruvate decarboxylase gene fine-tuned the fungus’s metabolism, reducing the amount of nutrients needed for protein production.

Their analyses revealed that the modified strain, named FCPD, used 44% less sugar to create the same amount of protein as the original strain and did so 88% more quickly.

“A lot of people thought growing mycoprotein was more sustainable, but no one had really considered how to reduce the environmental impact of the entire production process, especially when compared to other alternative protein products” says first author, Xiaohui Wu of Jiangnan University.

Life Cycle Footprint and Global Comparisons

The team then assessed the environmental footprint of FCPD across its entire life cycle, from laboratory spores to inactivated meat-like products, at an industrial scale. They modeled production in six countries with different energy systems, including Finland, which depends largely on renewable energy, and China, which relies more heavily on coal. In every scenario, FCPD produced lower environmental impacts than conventional Fusarium venenatum. Across its full life cycle, FCPD production reduced greenhouse gas emissions by up to 60%.

How FCPD Compares to Animal Protein

The researchers also compared the impacts of FCPD production to those associated with raising animals for food. Against chicken production in China, FCPD required 70% less land and lowered the potential for freshwater pollution by 78%.

“Gene-edited foods like this can meet growing food demands without the environmental costs of conventional farming,” says Liu.

This work was supported by the Key Research and Development Program of China, the Jiangsu Basic Research Center for Synthetic Biology, the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, and the Postgraduate Research & Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province.