South Africa’s fossil record preserves an extraordinary range of early human relatives. These include Australopithecus prometheus, A. africanus (best known for the Taung child), A. sediba, and P. robustus. Later species such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus/ergaster, Homo naledi, and ultimately Homo sapiens (modern humans) also appear in the record.

These fossils reveal key milestones in our evolutionary journey — from walking on two legs to crafting tools and developing larger brains. Over time, this lineage led to the emergence of Homo sapiens in South Africa roughly 153,000 years ago.

Decades of Questions

When P. robustus fossils were first unearthed in 1938, they raised questions that persisted for generations. How much variation existed within this species? Were size differences linked to biological sex or evidence of multiple species? What genetic traits set P. robustus apart from other early hominins and the first members of the Homo genus?

Researchers have long sought genetic clues to answer these questions, but ancient DNA does not survive well in Africa’s warm climate. To overcome this limitation, a team of African and European scientists turned to a different method: paleoproteomics, the study of ancient proteins.

They successfully extracted proteins from the enamel of four P. robustus teeth found at Swartkrans Cave, part of South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind. Unlike DNA, proteins can survive for millions of years because they bond tightly to bone and enamel, making them more resistant to heat and decay.

One of these ancient proteins revealed the sex of the fossils, showing that two of the individuals were male and two were female.

The Oldest Genetic Clues from Africa

This work marks a major step in human origins research. It provides some of the oldest molecular data ever recovered from Africa, allowing scientists to reexamine how early human relatives varied and how they might have been related to one another — or even represented multiple species.

The protein sequences also revealed intriguing genetic differences. One gene, responsible for producing enamelin (a key enamel-forming protein), varied among the specimens. Two fossils shared an amino acid sequence found in humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas, while the others had a version so far unique to Paranthropus.

Even more remarkably, one fossil carried both variants of the amino acid. This provided the first-ever evidence of heterozygosity — two versions of a gene — preserved in proteins that are 2 million years old.

A More Complex Family Tree

Mutations in protein sequences can signal evolutionary divergence. What appeared at first to be a mutation exclusive to P. robustus turned out to vary among individuals of the same group. This suggests that P. robustus may not have been a single uniform species, but a mix of populations with different ancestries.

By combining molecular data with physical anatomy (morphology), scientists can now create a more detailed picture of early human relationships. Future work will involve analyzing enamel proteins from additional P. robustus fossils found at other South African sites to test these findings.

Protecting Africa’s Fossil Legacy

The research team took great care to preserve these irreplaceable fossils, following strict South African regulations and minimizing the amount of material sampled. Local laboratories and African researchers played central roles throughout the project, ensuring that both the science and the benefits remained closely tied to the continent’s heritage.

Conducting advanced molecular research in Africa on African fossils represents an important move toward transforming and decolonizing the field of paleontology. It strengthens local expertise, fosters equitable collaboration, and ensures discoveries continue to enrich the regions where they originate.

A New Blueprint for Human Origins Research

By merging molecular and morphological data, this study offers a new model for exploring ancient diversity among early hominins. The findings suggest our ancient family tree was more complex than previously thought — and potentially far richer.

As techniques in paleoproteomics continue to advance, researchers expect more revelations about the distant ancestors who shaped the human story. For now, the Paranthropus robustus mystery has grown deeper, more intricate, and infinitely more fascinating.

(Jesper V. Olsen, Rebecca R. Ackermann and Enrico Cappellini were also the principal investigators on this project.)

Written by Palesa P. Madupe, Claire Koenig, and Ioannis Patramanis from the University of Copenhagen.

Meteors appear as glowing streaks when tiny bits of dust, pebbles, or rock burn up while entering Earth’s atmosphere. The Taurid meteors come from debris left behind by Comet Encke, which circles the sun and sheds a stream of material along its path. Twice each year, Earth moves through this debris field — once near Halloween, when the Taurids light up the night, and again in June, when the Beta Taurids occur during daylight hours. Those June meteors are rarely visible unless they produce exceptionally bright fireballs.

A Question of Risk: What If Larger Taurids Came Close?

Scientists have long studied the Taurid stream, but a recent study led by Research Professor Mark Boslough takes a closer look at its potential hazards. The paper, published in Acta Astronautica as part of the Planetary Defense Conference proceedings in Cape Town, South Africa, is titled “2032 and 2036 risk enhancement from NEOs in the Taurid stream: Is there a significant coherent component to impact risk?” The research examines whether the Taurid stream could increase the likelihood of impacts from near-Earth objects (NEOs) in coming decades.

“Planetary defense is the multidisciplinary and internationally coordinated effort to protect the Earth and its inhabitants from impacts by near-Earth objects (NEOs),” said Boslough. “It requires surveys to discover and track NEOs, campaigns to characterize those that are hazardous, modeling efforts to understand and predict impact effects and associated consequences, and mitigation through impact avoidance and/or civil defense.”

NEOs include asteroids, comets, and fragments whose orbits bring them close to Earth’s path around the sun. While small particles like those in the Taurid meteor shower enter the atmosphere all the time, larger bodies capable of producing events like the 2013 Chelyabinsk explosion or the 1908 Tunguska blast are much rarer.

Studying the Taurid Stream and Airburst Hazards

Boslough’s research incorporated new data from Taurid observation campaigns. The results suggest that small near-Earth objects capable of producing atmospheric explosions, known as airbursts, may pose a higher-than-expected risk. The study also examined the potential existence of a “Taurid resonant swarm” (TRS), a cluster of debris objects influenced by Jupiter’s gravity.

“The resonant swarm is theoretical, but there is some evidence that a sparse swarm of small objects exists because bright fireballs and seismic signatures of impacts on the moon have been observed at times that the theory has predicted,” Boslough explained.

Objects in the Taurid stream orbit the sun seven times for every two orbits of Jupiter. This pattern, called resonance, means the stream aligns with Jupiter at consistent intervals. The planet’s powerful gravity can pull fragments together, creating dense groupings — much like swirling gold particles collecting in a prospector’s pan.

Future Close Approaches: 2032 and 2036

If the Taurid swarm exists, it is expected to pass close to Earth in 2032 and 2036, possibly increasing the risk of impacts during those years.

“Our findings are that we have the technology to test the Taurid resonant swarm by using existing telescopes for targeted sky surveys in 2032 and 2036 when the hypothetical swarm will make very close approaches,” said Boslough.

These objects, if present, would likely be visible to telescopes as they move away after missing Earth. Concentrations of larger bodies — similar in size to the Chelyabinsk or Tunguska impactors — could potentially be observed during those windows.

During his time at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), Boslough modeled the Chelyabinsk explosion, estimating the object to be roughly 60 feet wide with an explosive force of about half a megaton of TNT. The Tunguska blast was likely 10 times more powerful, releasing an estimated 3 to 5 megatons.

“If we discover the objects with enough warning time, then we can take measures to reduce or eliminate the risk. If the new infrared telescope (NEO Surveyor) is in operation, then we can potentially have much more warning time,” he said.

The research was supported by NASA at the University of New Mexico and by the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) at Los Alamos National Laboratory as part of its planetary defense efforts.

Preparedness and Public Awareness

Boslough encourages the public to stay informed about natural hazards of all kinds — including weather, fire, earthquakes, and volcanoes — and to maintain perspective.

“Asteroid impacts represent a small but significant risk, and New Mexico’s national labs have some of the best minds working on the problem,” he said.

One takeaway from the Chelyabinsk event is that most injuries were caused by shattered glass when people ran to windows to watch the bright flash. Boslough notes that the same pattern would likely occur if a similar airburst happened over New Mexico. Experts recommend staying away from windows and not looking directly at the blast.

What to Expect From the Next Taurid Swarm

The 2032 approach of the hypothetical swarm will come from the nighttime side of Earth, making any potential objects easier to observe. Boslough says that if a significant concentration exists, the probability of an airburst or impact could be higher than normal, though the overall chance remains very low.

Daytime fireballs also occur, but they must be extremely bright to be visible against sunlight. “The average probability is extremely low, so even an enhanced risk means that the probability would still be low. The swarm will come from the direction of the sun in 2036, so fireballs will not be seen in our blue skies unless they are extremely bright,” Boslough said.

Fighting Misinformation About Impacts

The Magdalena Ridge Observatory near Socorro participates in planetary defense observations, and both Sandia and Los Alamos have active programs. Boslough cautions people to be skeptical of misinformation.

“A lot of false information and mythology about this subject has been promulgated on social media, online sources, and sensational TV shows. This media gives the public the wrong impression about NEOs, impacts, and airbursts, and what we can do to reduce the risk,” he said.

He has also worked to correct false claims in the scientific record. His published research helped prompt a journal to retract a paper that incorrectly suggested an ancient city in Jordan was destroyed by a Tunguska-scale airburst. He also coauthored a detailed refutation of the theory that the Taurid swarm caused a global climate disaster 12,900 years ago.

When and How to Watch the Taurids

For those hoping to catch the Taurid meteor shower this year, Boslough recommends looking up after 2 a.m. on Halloween night when the moon is below the horizon. A few days after the next full moon on November 5, the Taurids should again be visible in the evening sky before moonrise.

The Challenge of Cold Superconductors

Despite their promise, most superconducting materials cannot yet be used in everyday technology. Their extraordinary ability to conduct electricity only appears at extremely low temperatures, far below what is practical for energy systems or advanced electronics. Supported by the “Theory of Condensed Matter” program within the Department of Energy’s (DOE) Basic Energy Sciences, the Penn State team created a new computational approach to predict which materials might display superconductivity, potentially paving the way to finding ones that work at much higher, even near-room, temperatures.

A New Look at a Longstanding Mystery

Predicting superconductivity — especially in materials that could operate at higher temperatures — has remained an unsolved challenge. Existing theories have long been considered accurate only for low-temperature superconductors, explained Zi-Kui Liu, a professor of materials science and engineering at Penn State.

“The goal has always been to raise the temperature at which superconductivity persists,” said Liu, the lead author of a new study published in Superconductor Science and Technology. “But first, we need to understand exactly how superconductivity happens, and that is where our work comes in.”

How the Classic Theory Explains Superconductors

For decades, scientists have relied on the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory to describe how conventional superconductors function at extremely low temperatures. According to this theory, electrons move without resistance because of interactions with vibrations in the atomic lattice, called phonons. These interactions allow electrons to pair up into what are known as Cooper pairs, which move in sync through the material, avoiding atomic collisions and preventing energy loss as heat.

“Imagine a superhighway just for electrons,” Liu explained. “If there are too many routes, electrons bump into things and lose energy. But if you create a straight tunnel for them, like the Autobahn in Germany, they can travel fast and freely without resistance.”

The Quest for Power Without Resistance

This ability to transmit energy without resistance is what makes superconductors so promising, Liu said. If scientists can develop materials that stay superconducting at higher temperatures, electricity could travel farther, faster, and more efficiently, transforming global power systems. To understand this phenomenon, the DOE-backed project uses computational tools known as density functional theory (DFT). DFT helps model how electrons behave in ordinary conductors compared to superconductors. The team hypothesizes that even though DFT does not directly model Cooper pairs, the electron density it predicts should resemble that of paired electrons, allowing researchers to study potential superconducting behavior.

Until recently, BCS theory and DFT — one describing electron pairing, the other rooted in quantum mechanics — were treated separately. Liu’s team found a way to connect these frameworks, creating a new path to predict superconductivity.

Introducing Zentropy Theory

The breakthrough centers on a concept called zentropy theory. This approach merges principles from statistical mechanics, which studies the collective behavior of many particles, with quantum physics and modern computational modeling. Zentropy theory links a material’s electronic structure to how its properties change with temperature, revealing when it transitions from a superconducting to a non-superconducting state. To apply the theory, scientists must understand how a material behaves at absolute zero (zero Kelvin), the coldest temperature possible, where all atomic motion ceases. Liu’s team demonstrated that even DFT — though not originally intended to study superconductors — can provide key insights into when and how superconductivity occurs.

Predicting the Next Generation of Superconductors

According to Liu, the new method allows scientists to predict whether a material could become superconducting. Zentropy theory can then estimate the critical temperature at which the material loses that property. The classic BCS theory successfully explains superconductors that operate only at very low temperatures, but fails for high-temperature varieties, where Cooper pairs break apart more easily. Through DFT modeling, Liu’s group discovered that in high-temperature superconductors, the electron “superhighway” remains stable because of a unique atomic structure — similar to a pontoon bridge that flexes with waves, allowing electrons to move smoothly even when thermal vibrations increase.

Using this combined approach, the team successfully predicted superconducting behavior in both conventional and high-temperature materials, including one that traditional theory could not explain. They also forecasted potential superconductivity in copper, silver, and gold — metals not typically considered superconductors — likely because they would require extremely low temperatures for the effect to appear. These findings could accelerate the discovery of new materials that operate as superconductors at higher, more practical temperatures.

Next Steps in the Search for Practical Superconductors

The Penn State researchers now plan to expand their work in two ways. First, they will use the zentropy theory to predict how pressure affects the temperature at which superconductors lose their resistance. Second, they will search a massive database of five million materials to identify new candidates that could exhibit superconductivity. The goal is to find the most promising materials and collaborate with experimental researchers to test them.

“We are not just explaining what is already known,” Liu said. “We are building a framework to discover something entirely new. If successful, the approach could lead to the discovery of high-temperature superconductors that work in practical settings, potentially even at room temperature if they exist. That kind of breakthrough could have an enormous impact on modern technology and energy systems.”

Shun-Li Shang, research professor of materials science and engineering at Penn State, is a co-investigator on this study.

The U.S. Department of Energy supported this research.

Because electric forces move from positive to negative charges, scientists once assumed the magnetosphere was positively charged on the morning side and negatively charged on the evening side. However, recent satellite measurements have overturned that long-standing idea, revealing that the actual charge distribution is the reverse of what was expected.

This surprising finding led researchers from Kyoto University, Nagoya University, and Kyushu University to revisit how the magnetosphere’s electric characteristics are formed and sustained.

To test their hypotheses, the team used large-scale magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations to recreate conditions in near-Earth space. Their model included a steady stream of high-speed solar wind, the constant flow of charged particles emitted by the sun. The results supported the recent satellite observations, showing that the morning side of the magnetosphere carries a negative charge while the opposite side is positive — but this pattern does not apply everywhere.

In the polar regions, the charge polarity matches the traditional theory. Near the equator, though, the pattern flips across a wide area, creating a striking difference between the two zones.

Plasma Motion Explains the Mystery

“In conventional theory, the charge polarity in the equatorial plane and above the polar regions should be the same. Why, then, do we see opposite polarities between these regions? This can actually be explained by the motion of plasma,” explains corresponding author Yusuke Ebihara of Kyoto University.

When magnetic energy from the sun enters Earth’s magnetic field, it moves clockwise on the dusk side of the planet and channels toward the poles. Meanwhile, Earth’s magnetic field lines run from the Southern Hemisphere to the Northern Hemisphere — upward near the equator and downward near the poles. This opposing orientation between the magnetic field and plasma flow leads to the reversal in charge distribution between the regions.

“The electric force and charge distribution are both results, not causes, of plasma motion,” says Ebihara. This insight reframes how scientists interpret electrical activity in Earth’s near-space environment.

Broader Implications for Planetary Science

Plasma convection — the large-scale flow of charged particles within the magnetosphere — drives many dynamic space phenomena. Recent studies also suggest that this movement influences Earth’s radiation belts, which are regions filled with fast-moving, high-energy particles.

By clarifying how plasma motion shapes electric fields, this research deepens understanding of large-scale space plasma behavior. It also sheds light on similar processes occurring around other magnetized worlds, including Jupiter and Saturn, expanding our grasp of how planetary environments evolve across the solar system.

Years of Field Surveys Lead to a Surprise

Starting in 2018, the research team carried out extensive field surveys in the upper reaches of the Dadu River. During their expeditions, they came across a population of lizards that displayed unusual traits not seen in other known Diploderma species from the area. Detailed genetic testing and morphological comparisons confirmed their suspicions: this was a species that had never been documented before.

The scientists named it Diploderma bifluviale, a nod to its discovery site near the meeting point of two rivers, Chuosijia and Jiaomuzu.

With this finding, Diploderma bifluviale becomes the 47th recognized species of Diploderma in China. Members of this genus are found throughout East Asia and the northern Indochinese Peninsula, where they occupy a wide variety of mountain habitats.

A Unique Lizard With Distinctive Traits

Measuring about 6-7 centimeters in body length, D. bifluviale stands out with its distinctive coloring and a wheat-colored tongue — features that set it apart from closely related species. It thrives in semi-arid shrublands and rocky, sun-exposed valleys at elevations between 2,100 and 2,500 meters. The environment it inhabits is characterized by small-leaved shrubs and scattered stones, creating the perfect camouflage for this elusive reptile.

“This discovery highlights the understudied biodiversity of the upper Dadu River,” the researchers wrote in their report, published in the open-access journal ZooKeys. Their finding underscores how even in well-surveyed regions of China, nature continues to reveal new surprises.