In experiments using slices of mouse brain, the artificial neurons successfully triggered responses in real neurons. This result shows a new level of compatibility between electronic devices and living neural systems.

Toward Brain Interfaces and Energy-Efficient AI

This advance moves researchers closer to electronics that can directly interface with the nervous system. Potential uses include brain-machine interfaces and neuroprosthetics, such as implants that could help restore hearing, vision, or movement.

The technology also points toward a new generation of computing systems inspired by the brain. By replicating how neurons communicate, future hardware could perform complex tasks using far less energy. The brain remains the most energy-efficient computing system known, and scientists hope to apply its principles to modern technology.

The study will be published on April 15 in the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

“The world we live in today is dominated by artificial intelligence (AI),” said Northwestern’s Mark C. Hersam, who led the study. “The way you make AI smarter is by training it on more and more data. This data-intensive training leads to a massive power-consumption problem. Therefore, we have to come up with more efficient hardware to handle big data and AI. Because the brain is five orders of magnitude more energy efficient than a digital computer, it makes sense to look to the brain for inspiration for next-generation computing.”

Hersam is an expert in brain-inspired computing and holds multiple roles at Northwestern University, including the Walter P. Murphy Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at the McCormick School of Engineering. He also is a professor of medicine at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and a professor of chemistry at the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences. In addition, he serves as chair of the department of materials science and engineering, director of the Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, and a member of the International Institute for Nanotechnology. He co-led the study with Vinod K. Sangwan, a research associate professor at McCormick.

Why the Brain Outperforms Traditional Silicon

Modern computers handle increasing workloads by packing billions of identical transistors onto rigid, two-dimensional silicon chips. Each component behaves the same way, and once manufactured, the system remains fixed.

The brain works very differently. It consists of many types of neurons, each with specialized roles, arranged in soft, three-dimensional networks. These networks are constantly changing, forming and adjusting connections as learning occurs.

“Silicon achieves complexity by having billions of identical devices,” Hersam said. “Everything is the same, rigid and fixed once it’s fabricated. The brain is the opposite. It’s heterogeneous, dynamic and three-dimensional. To move in that direction, we need new materials and new ways to build electronics.”

Although artificial neurons have been developed before, most produce overly simple signals. To achieve more complex behavior, engineers typically need large networks of devices, which increases energy use.

Printable Materials Enable Brain-Like Behavior

To better replicate real neural activity, Hersam’s team built artificial neurons using soft, printable materials that more closely match the brain’s structure. Their approach relies on electronic inks made from nanoscale flakes of molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), which acts as a semiconductor, and graphene, which serves as an electrical conductor. These materials were deposited onto flexible polymer surfaces using aerosol jet printing.

Previously, researchers treated the polymer in these inks as a flaw because it interfered with electrical performance. As a result, they removed it after printing. In this work, the team used that same feature to enhance the device.

“Instead of fully removing the polymer, we partially decompose it,” he said. “Then, when we pass current through the device, we drive further decomposition of the polymer. This decomposition occurs in a spatially inhomogeneous manner, leading to formation of a conductive filament, such that all the current is constricted into a narrow region in space.”

That narrow conductive path produces a sudden electrical response similar to a neuron firing. The resulting device can generate a wide variety of signals, including single spikes, continuous firing, and bursting patterns, closely resembling real neural communication.

Because each artificial neuron can produce more complex signals, fewer components are needed to perform advanced tasks. This could significantly improve computing efficiency.

Testing Artificial Neurons on Real Brain Tissue

To evaluate whether the artificial neurons could truly interact with living systems, the researchers partnered with Indira M. Raman, the Bill and Gayle Cook Professor of Neurobiology at Weinberg. Her team applied the artificial signals to slices of mouse cerebellum.

The results showed that the electrical spikes matched key biological properties, including their timing and duration. These signals reliably activated real neurons and triggered neural circuits in a way similar to natural brain activity.

“Other labs have tried to make artificial neurons with organic materials, and they spiked too slowly,” Hersam said. “Or they used metal oxides, which are too fast. We are within a temporal range that was not previously demonstrated for artificial neurons. You can see the living neurons respond to our artificial neuron. So, we’ve demonstrated signals that are not only the right timescale but also the right spike shape to interact directly with living neurons.”

Low-Cost, Sustainable Manufacturing and AI Implications

Beyond performance, the new approach offers environmental and practical advantages. The manufacturing process is simple and inexpensive, and the additive printing method places material only where it is needed, reducing waste.

Improving energy efficiency is especially important as artificial intelligence systems grow more demanding. Large data centers already consume vast amounts of power and require significant water for cooling.

“To meet the energy demands of AI, tech companies are building gigawatt data centers powered by dedicated nuclear power plants,” Hersam said. “It is evident that this massive power consumption will limit further scaling of computing since it’s hard to imagine a next-generation data center requiring 100 nuclear power plants. The other issue is that when you’re dissipating gigawatts of power, there’s a lot of heat. Because data centers are cooled with water, AI is putting severe stress on the water supply. However you look at it, we need to come up with more energy-efficient hardware for AI.”

The study, “Multi-order complexity spiking neurons enabled by printed MoS₂ memristive nanosheet networks,” was supported by the National Science Foundation.

The study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), used sedimentary ancient DNA to uncover evidence of temperate trees such as oak, elm, and hazel more than 16,000 years ago. Researchers also detected DNA from a tree genus thought to have disappeared from the region around 400,000 years ago. In addition, the results suggest that parts of Doggerland persisted through major flooding events, including the Storegga tsunami about 8,150 years ago, with some areas remaining above water until roughly 7,000 years ago.

Professor Robin Allaby at University of Warwick and lead author of this study says: “By analyzing sedaDNA from Southern Doggerland at a scale not seen before, we have reconstructed the environment of this lost land from the end of the last Ice Age until the North Sea arrived. We unexpectedly found trees thousands of years earlier than anyone expected — and evidence that the North Sea fully formed later than previously thought.

“From a human perspective, this is the best evidence that Doggerland’s wooded environment could have supported early Mesolithic communities prior to flooding and may help explain why relatively little early Mesolithic evidence survives on mainland Britain today.”

Reconstructing the Lost Landscape of Doggerland

Doggerland once formed a land bridge connecting Britain to mainland Europe before rising sea levels submerged it, creating the modern North Sea. While scientists have long known the region was eventually forested, the timing of when trees first took hold and how suitable the environment was for early humans has remained uncertain.

To investigate, researchers analyzed sedimentary ancient DNA from 252 samples taken from 41 marine cores along the prehistoric Southern River (chosen for its well-preserved sediments and potential to reveal past habitats). This approach allowed them to trace the ecological history of Doggerland from about 16,000 years ago until it disappeared beneath the sea.

Their findings show that temperate woodland species, including oak, elm, and hazel, were present much earlier than suggested by pollen records from Britain. Lime (Tilia), a tree that prefers warmer conditions, also appeared around 2,000 years earlier than previously recorded in mainland Britain, indicating that parts of Doggerland may have acted as a northern refuge during the last Ice Age.

In another unexpected result, the team identified DNA from Pterocarya, a relative of walnut believed to have vanished from north-western Europe about 400,000 years ago. This suggests the species survived in the region far longer than previously thought.

New Insights Into Ice Age Europe and Early Humans

The findings add to growing evidence that small, protected areas known as “microrefugia” allowed temperate plant species to survive harsh Ice Age conditions in northern Europe. These refuges may help explain Reid’s Paradox — how forests were able to spread so quickly across the region after the last Ice Age ended.

The presence of woodland ecosystems in southern Doggerland 16,000 years ago also suggests the area could have supported abundant wildlife and provided valuable resources for humans, including animals such as boars. This would place a rich environment in the region thousands of years before the appearance of early groups like the Maglemosian culture around 10,300 years ago.

Co-author, Professor Vincent Gaffney at University of Bradford says, “For many years, Doggerland was often described as a land bridge – only significant as a route for prehistoric settlement of the British Isles. Today, we understand that Doggerland was not only a heartland of early human settlement, but also that the presence of the land mass may have provided a refuge for plants and animals and acted as a fulcrum for how prehistoric communities settled and resettled northern Europe over millennia.”

An international team of scientists led by the University of Portsmouth has completed a large global study of these so-called surging glaciers. The research looks at the risks they pose and how climate change is reshaping when and where these sudden events occur.

What Causes Glacier Surges

A glacier surge happens when ice that normally moves slowly suddenly speeds up. During these periods, large amounts of ice are pushed quickly toward the glacier’s front, often causing it to advance. These surges can last for several years, and many glaciers go through repeated cycles, with long quiet periods in between.

The study, published in Nature Reviews Earth and Environment, brought together data on more than 3,100 glaciers that have experienced surges. Instead of being evenly spread around the globe, they are concentrated in specific regions, including the Arctic, High Mountain Asia, and the Andes.

Researchers analyzed how these glaciers work, what conditions lead to surges, and where they are most likely to occur. The study also maps their global distribution and explains why they cluster in certain climates.

“Surge-type glaciers are very unusual and can be troublesome,” said lead author Dr. Harold Lovell, Senior Lecturer and glaciologist from the University of Portsmouth’s School of the Environment and Life Sciences. “As a friend and fellow glaciologist once put it, they save up ice like a savings account and then spend it all very quickly like a Black Friday event. But while they only represent 1 per cent of all glaciers worldwide, they affect just under one-fifth of global glacier area, and their behavior can result in serious and sometimes catastrophic natural disasters that affect thousands of people.”

Why Surging Glaciers Are Vulnerable

The findings show that these glaciers are not protected from climate change. In fact, surging activity can make them more sensitive. During surges, they can lose large amounts of ice, contributing significantly to ice loss in some regions.

Six Major Hazards Linked to Glacier Surges

The study highlights six main dangers that surging glaciers can create for nearby communities, especially in mountainous areas:

• Glacier advance — ice can move over buildings, roads, and farmland
• River blockages — glaciers can dam rivers, forming unstable lakes that may burst and cause severe flooding
• Meltwater outbursts from beneath the glacier — sudden releases of water can also trigger destructive floods
• Sudden detachments of glaciers — these events can produce large avalanches of ice and rock
• Widespread crevassing — fast-moving ice creates deep cracks, making travel extremely dangerous where glaciers are used as routes between settlements or for tourism and climbing
• Iceberg hazards — when glaciers surge into the ocean, they can release many icebergs quickly, posing risks to ships and marine tourism

Using this information, scientists identified 81 glaciers that present the greatest threat when they surge. Many of these are located in the Karakoram Mountains in High Mountain Asia, where populated valleys and key infrastructure sit directly below them. These glaciers tend to be large, close to people, and prone to repeated surging.

Climate Change Is Increasing Uncertainty

One of the most concerning conclusions is that warming temperatures are changing how glacier surges behave, making them harder to predict at a time when accurate forecasts are critical.

“By drawing on previous studies, we have been able to piece together the growing body of evidence that shows how climate change is affecting glacier surges, including where and how often they happen,” Dr. Lovell said. “This includes instances of extreme weather such as heavy rainfall events or very warm summers triggering earlier than expected surges, suggesting an increasing unpredictability in their behavior.”

The overall picture is complex and varies by region. In some places, surges are happening more often than in the past. In others, they are becoming less frequent. Some glaciers have thinned so much that they may no longer be able to build up enough ice to surge again.

Shifting Patterns Around the World

Surging glaciers are currently concentrated in the Arctic and sub-Arctic (48 percent) and High Mountain Asia (50 percent), where climate conditions support this behavior. However, continued warming could change where surges occur.

In regions like Iceland, where glaciers are shrinking quickly, surges may largely disappear. In contrast, parts of High Mountain Asia and the Canadian and Russian Arctic could see more frequent surges due to warmer conditions and increased meltwater. There is even the possibility that surging glaciers could emerge in new areas, such as the Antarctic Peninsula.

Co-author Professor Gwenn Flowers, from Simon Fraser University in Canada, said: “The challenge we face is that just as we’re starting to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms behind glacier surges, climate change is rewriting the rules. Extreme weather events that might have been rare even 50 years ago could become triggers for unexpected surges. Given that surges cause hazards in some settings, this makes protecting vulnerable communities much more difficult.”

The Need for Better Monitoring and Forecasting

Dr. Lovell added: “This research is extremely important because understanding which regions have concentrations of surging glaciers helps us plan monitoring efforts and understand future behavior. Knowing which specific glaciers pose the greatest risks can help protect communities, especially those most at risk. But the increasing unpredictability means we need much better surveillance and forecasting capabilities.”

The researchers stress that ongoing satellite monitoring, more field observations during surges, improved modeling, and better projections are essential. These efforts will help scientists understand how surging glaciers will respond to continued climate warming and how to reduce the risks they pose to communities around the world.

Key Points

• Scientists have identified more than 3,100 surging glaciers worldwide, with most grouped in key regions such as the Arctic, High Mountain Asia, and the Andes
• Researchers pinpointed 81 glaciers as especially dangerous, many in the Karakoram Mountains where surges could directly impact nearby communities and critical infrastructure
• Climate change is making these surges harder to predict, with extreme weather events like heavy rain and unusually warm periods now capable of triggering earlier and more unexpected activity

The author stresses that there is no simple solution for losing weight and keeping it off. Regular exercise and a balanced, healthy diet remain essential. In addition, the long term effects of consuming large amounts of carbonated water are still unclear.

Sparkling water is often seen as a helpful tool because it can create a feeling of fullness, which may reduce hunger. It has also been suggested that it could speed up digestion and help lower blood glucose levels, leading some to view it as a potential aid for weight loss.

Unclear Mechanisms Behind Blood Sugar Effects

Despite these claims, the exact way carbonated water might lower blood glucose is not well understood. It is also unclear how any such effect would translate into meaningful weight management benefits.

To explore this further, the author compared drinking fizzy water to hemodialysis, a medical process in which blood is filtered (dialyzed) to remove waste and excess fluid when the kidneys can no longer perform this function. This comparison draws on findings from earlier research.

What Hemodialysis Reveals About Glucose Use

During hemodialysis, the blood becomes more alkaline, mainly due to the production of carbon dioxide (CO₂). In a similar way, the CO₂ in carbonated water is absorbed through the stomach lining and quickly converted into bicarbonate (HCO₃) within red blood cells. This shift toward alkalinity may activate certain enzymes that increase how quickly glucose is absorbed and used by the body.

Observations from clinical settings show that blood glucose levels drop as blood moves through the dialyzer, even when the starting glucose level in the dialysate solution is higher.

Why the Real World Impact Is Small

Although these findings suggest that fizzy water could slightly improve how the body uses glucose, the overall impact is very limited. Context is important, the author notes.

In a standard 4 hour hemodialysis session, about 48000 ml of blood passes through the dialyzer. This process results in roughly 9.5 g of glucose being used.

“Given this minimal glucose reduction, the impact of CO₂ in carbonated water is not a standalone solution for weight loss. A balanced diet and regular physical activity remain crucial components of sustainable weight management,” he insists.

Possible Digestive Side Effects

The author also points out that carbonated water can affect the digestive system, especially in people with sensitive stomachs or existing gastrointestinal issues.

“Also, drinking carbonated water can have some effects on the digestive system, particularly for individuals with sensitive stomachs or pre-existing gastrointestinal conditions. The primary concerns include bloating, gas and, in some cases, exacerbation of certain symptoms associated with digestive disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome or gastro-oesophageal reflux disease,” he explains.

“Moderation is key to avoiding discomfort while still enjoying the possible metabolic benefits of carbonated water,” he says.

Experts Urge Caution

Professor Sumantra Ray, Executive Director of the NNEdPro Global Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, which co-owns the journal, emphasized that the findings are still preliminary.

“While there is a hypothetical link between carbonated water and glucose metabolism this has yet to be tested in well designed human intervention studies.

“And although this study adds to the evidence base, it doesn’t provide sufficient evidence on which to make recommendations for the preventive or therapeutic use of carbonated water. Additionally, any potential benefits must be weighed up against the potential harms of carbonated drinks which may contain sodium, glucose, or other additives.”

The hormone, known as FGF21 (fibroblast growth factor 21), has already attracted attention as a potential target for new therapies. Drugs designed to act on this pathway are currently being tested in clinical trials for MASH (metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis), a serious form of fatty liver disease.

Lead researcher Matthew Potthoff, Ph.D., and his team focused on understanding exactly how FGF21 produces its effects. Their results show that the hormone acts through the hindbrain, which is located in the lower back part of the brain.

Unexpected Brain Region Revealed

“In our previous studies, we found that FGF21 signals to the brain instead of the liver, but we didn’t know where in the brain,” said Potthoff, a professor of biochemistry and physiology in the OU College of Medicine and deputy director of OU Health Harold Hamm Diabetes Center. “We thought we would find that it signaled to the hypothalamus (which is widely implicated in body weight regulation), so we were very surprised to discover that the signal was to the hindbrain, which is where the GLP-1 analogs are believed to act.”

More specifically, FGF21 interacts with two parts of the hindbrain called the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and the area postrema (AP). These regions then communicate with another brain structure known as the parabrachial nucleus. This chain of signaling is essential for the hormone’s ability to influence metabolism and reduce body weight.

Brain Circuit Drives Fat Burning Effects

“This brain circuit seems to be mediating the effects of FGF21,” Potthoff said. “We hope that by identifying the specific circuit, it can help in the creation of more targeted therapies that are effective without negative side effects. FGF21 analogues have side effects like gastrointestinal issues and, in some cases, bone loss.”

Although FGF21 and GLP-1 drugs affect similar areas of the brain, they work in very different ways. GLP-1 medications reduce appetite and food intake, while FGF21 increases metabolic activity, helping the body burn more energy and lose weight.

Potential for Future Obesity and Liver Disease Treatments

Potthoff and his team are optimistic that this research could lead to new treatments for both obesity and MASH.

“While this study focused on the mechanism of FGF21 to reduce body weight, additional studies are necessary to examine whether this circuit also mediates the ability of FGF21 and FGF21 analogues to reverse MASH,” he said.

CAR-based therapies have already transformed cancer treatment, particularly for blood-related cancers. While CAR-T cells are well studied, scientists are still working to understand how to optimize CAR-NK cells. One key challenge is identifying which internal signaling mechanisms allow these cells to perform at their best.

The new research addresses this gap by focusing on how specific signaling domains influence NK cell activity. By incorporating 2B4 and DAP12 into the CAR design, the researchers were able to enhance the cells’ activation state, making them more effective at targeting tumors.

Combining activation signals with drug control

The team also explored a strategy to fine-tune the cells using a temporary drug-based approach. They tested dasatinib, a drug that can briefly suppress cell activity, to see how controlled pauses might affect performance.

Their results suggest that combining optimized activation signals with reversible pharmacological control can improve both the strength and efficiency of CAR-NK therapies. This approach may help researchers design more advanced and controllable cell-based cancer treatments in the future.

Stronger tumor control in preclinical models

According to the Ribeirão Preto Blood Center Press Office, experiments in animal models showed encouraging results. CAR-NK cells engineered with 2B4-DAP12 and pretreated with dasatinib were better at controlling tumor growth compared to more traditional versions of the therapy.

Research collaboration and institutional support

The Center for Cell-Based Therapy (CTC) is one of the Research, Innovation, and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs) supported by FAPESP. It operates within the Ribeirão Preto Blood Center and is affiliated with the general and teaching hospital (“Hospital das Clínicas”) of the Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo (FMRP-USP).

Together, these findings point toward a new generation of CAR-NK therapies that could offer stronger, more adaptable ways to fight cancer.