About 1,000 kilometers off the coast of Portugal lies one of the most striking examples. Known as the King’s Trough Complex, this vast underwater structure stretches roughly 500 kilometers and includes a series of parallel trenches and deep basins. At its eastern edge is Peake Deep, one of the deepest locations in the Atlantic Ocean.

What created such an immense formation? A team of international researchers led by the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel has uncovered new clues. Their findings appear in Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (G-Cubed), published by the American Geophysical Union (AGU).

“Researchers have long suspected that tectonic processes — that is, movements of the Earth’s crust — played a central role in the formation of the King’s Trough,” says lead author Dr. Antje Dürkefälden, marine geologist at GEOMAR. “Our results now explain for the first time why this remarkable structure developed precisely at this location.”

Seafloor Rifting Between Europe and Africa

The new research indicates that between about 37 and 24 million years ago, a plate boundary separating Europe and Africa temporarily passed through this part of the North Atlantic. As the tectonic plates shifted, the crust in this region was pulled apart and fractured, opening progressively from east to west, much like a zipper being undone.

An important piece of the puzzle lies even deeper. Before the plate boundary moved into the area, the oceanic crust there had already become unusually thick and heated. This condition resulted from hot material rising upward from Earth’s mantle. Known as a mantle plume, this steady column of molten rock originates far below the surface. The team believes this was an early offshoot of what is now the Azores mantle plume.

“This thickened, heated crust may have made the region mechanically weaker, so that the plate boundary preferentially shifted here,” explains co-author PD Dr. Jörg Geldmacher, marine geologist at GEOMAR. “When the plate boundary later moved further south towards the modern Azores, the formation of the King’s Trough also came to a halt.”

How Mantle Activity Shapes the Atlantic

The King’s Trough offers a clear example of how deep mantle processes and shifting tectonic plates interact. Activity far below the surface can prepare the crust for later deformation, influencing where major fractures and rifts eventually develop.

These findings also shed light on the broader geodynamic history of the Atlantic Ocean. Similar processes may still be underway today. Near the Azores, a comparable trench system called the Terceira Rift is forming in another region where the oceanic crust is unusually thick.

Mapping the King’s Trough

The conclusions are based on data collected during research expedition M168 aboard the research vessel METEOR in 2020, led by Antje Dürkefälden. The scientists used high resolution sonar to produce a detailed map of the seafloor. They then retrieved volcanic rock samples from several parts of the trench system using a chain bag dredge.

Back in the lab, the team examined the chemical makeup of the rocks. Selected samples were dated at the University of Madison (Wisconsin, USA). Additional bathymetric data came from the Portuguese research centre Estrutura de Missão para a Extensão da Plataforma Continental (EMEPC). Researchers from Kiel University and Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg also contributed to the study.

The strongest protective effect, along with the greatest delay in the onset of heart disease — was observed among individuals whose sugar intake was restricted from conception (“in utero”) through about age 2.

Health experts have long suggested that the first 1000 days of life (from conception to around 2 years of age) represent a critical window when nutrition can influence long term health. Current guidelines recommend avoiding sugary drinks and ultra-processed foods (which often contain high amounts of sugar) as infants and toddlers begin eating solid foods.

A Natural Experiment Using UK Sugar Rationing

To explore whether limiting sugar during this early window affects future heart health, researchers took advantage of a unique historical event. Sugar rationing in the UK ended in September 1953, creating a natural comparison between children born before and after that policy change.

The analysis included 63,433 participants from the UK Biobank, with an average age of 55, who were born between October 1951 and March 1956 and had no prior history of heart disease. Of these, 40,063 were exposed to sugar rationing early in life, while 23,370 were not.

Researchers linked participants’ health records to monitor rates of cardiovascular disease (CVD), heart attack, heart failure, irregular heart rhythm (atrial fibrillation), stroke, and death from cardiovascular causes. The analysis accounted for genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that could influence heart health. An additional comparison group of adults born outside the UK, who did not experience sugar rationing or similar policy shifts around 1953, was also included to strengthen the findings.

Lower Cardiovascular Risk and Delayed Onset

The study found that longer exposure to sugar rationing corresponded with steadily lower risks of cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Part of this benefit appeared to stem from lower rates of diabetes and high blood pressure among those exposed to rationing early in life.

Compared with people who were never exposed to rationing, individuals exposed in utero plus 1-2 years had a 20% lower risk of CVD overall. They also had reduced risks of heart attack (25%), heart failure (26%), atrial fibrillation (24%), stroke (31%), and cardiovascular death (27%).

In addition to lower risk, heart problems tended to develop later. Those exposed to sugar rationing before birth and in early childhood experienced delays in the onset of cardiovascular conditions of up to two and a half years compared with those who were not exposed.

Researchers also observed modest but meaningful improvements in measures of healthy heart function among individuals who experienced rationing.

Sugar Limits and Modern Dietary Guidance

During the rationing period, sugar allowances for the entire population, including pregnant women and children, were capped at less than 40 g per day — and infants under age 2 were not allowed any added sugars. These limits align closely with today’s dietary recommendations for young children.

Because this was an observational study, it cannot prove that lower sugar intake directly caused better heart outcomes. The researchers note several limitations, including the lack of detailed individual dietary records and the possibility of recall bias.

Even so, they emphasize that the large scale and careful design of the study allowed them to compare different periods of exposure and examine potential pathways connecting early sugar intake with later cardiovascular health.

“Our results underscore the cardiac benefit of early life policies focused on sugar rationing. Further studies should investigate individual level dietary exposures and consider the interplay between genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors to develop more personalized prevention strategies.”

A recent study published in Geology shows that this same complexity exists on Mars. High resolution images of the landscape and mineral measurements collected from orbit indicate that some of the planet’s youngest volcanic regions have a much more detailed history than previously assumed. Instead of forming during brief, one time eruptions, these volcanoes were built by magma systems that remained active and changed over extended periods beneath the martian surface.

Study Focuses on Volcanic System Near Pavonis Mons

An international team of researchers from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, the School of Earth, Environment and Sustainability (SEES) at the University of Iowa, and the Lancaster Environment Centre examined a long lasting volcanic system located south of Pavonis Mons, one of the largest volcanoes on Mars. By pairing careful surface mapping with mineral data gathered from orbiting spacecraft, the scientists reconstructed how the volcano and its underlying magma system developed over time with remarkable precision.

“Our results show that even during Mars’ most recent volcanic period, magma systems beneath the surface remained active and complex,” says Bartosz Pieterek of Adam Mickiewicz University. “The volcano did not erupt just once — it evolved over time as conditions in the subsurface changed.”

Multiple Eruptive Phases Traced by Mineral Signatures

The analysis revealed that the volcanic system progressed through several stages. Early activity involved lava spreading out from fissures in the ground, while later eruptions came from more focused vents that built cone shaped features. Although these lava deposits look different today, they were all fed by the same underlying magma reservoir. Each phase left behind a unique mineral fingerprint, allowing researchers to track how the magma’s composition shifted over time.

“These mineral differences tell us that the magma itself was evolving,” Pieterek explains. “This likely reflects changes in how deep the magma originated and how long it was stored beneath the surface before erupting.”

Orbital Data Offers Rare Insight Into Mars Interior

Since scientists cannot yet collect rock samples directly from Martian volcanoes, studies like this offer valuable information about the planet’s interior. The findings demonstrate how powerful orbital observations can be for uncovering the hidden structure and long term evolution of volcanic systems, both on Mars and on other rocky worlds.

That balance changes when peatlands are drained for farming. Lowering the water table allows oxygen to enter the soil, speeding up microbial activity. As microbes break down the previously preserved plant matter, carbon that has been stored for centuries is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Northern Peatlands Remain Understudied

Large areas of peatland across Europe and the Nordic region have been drained since the 1600s. Scientists have closely examined how drainage and shifting water levels affect greenhouse gas emissions in many of these regions.

Far less is known about the northernmost peatlands used for agriculture. These areas experience cold temperatures, short growing seasons, and extended daylight during summer months.

“From studies in warmer regions, we know that raising the groundwater level in drained and cultivated peatland often reduces CO₂ emissions, because the peat decomposes more slowly,” explains NIBIO researcher Junbin Zhao.

“At the same time, wetter and low-oxygen conditions can increase methane, since the microbes that produce methane thrive when there is almost no oxygen in the soil.”

Nitrous oxide can also increase under certain moisture conditions. When soil is damp but not completely waterlogged, nitrogen breakdown may stop midway, producing nitrous oxide instead of harmless nitrogen gas.

“Because each greenhouse gas reacts differently to changes in water level, one gas can go down while another goes up. That’s why it’s important to look at the overall gas balance,” says Zhao.

“We need to measure CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide at the same time and throughout the whole season to understand the real net effect in the northernmost agricultural areas.”

Two Year Arctic Field Study in Northern Norway

To answer these questions, Zhao and his colleagues carried out a two year field study in 2022 and 2023 at NIBIO’s Svanhovd research station in the Pasvik Valley of Northern Norway. Automated chambers tracked CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions multiple times per day throughout the growing season.

“The experiment included five plots that together reflected typical management conditions found in a drained agricultural field — with different groundwater levels, different amounts of fertiliser, and different numbers of harvests per season,” Zhao explains.

The team focused on three key questions:

• Can raising the groundwater level make a cultivated Arctic peatland close to climate-neutral?
• Does the water level affect soil CO₂ emissions more than it affects plant CO₂ uptake?
• How do fertilization and harvesting influence the total climate balance?

Higher Groundwater Levels Cut CO₂ Emissions

When the Pasvik peatland was heavily drained, it released large amounts of CO₂, comparable to cultivated peatlands farther south. But when researchers raised the groundwater to between 25 and 50 cm below the surface, emissions dropped sharply.

“At these higher water levels, methane and nitrous oxide emissions were also low, giving a much better overall gas balance. Under such conditions, the field even absorbed slightly more CO₂ than it released,” says Zhao.

This suggests that maintaining higher groundwater levels in Arctic farmland could serve as an effective climate strategy.

“Our findings are especially interesting because emissions were measured continuously around the clock. This meant we captured short spikes of unusually high emissions and natural daily fluctuations, details often missed when measurements are taken only occasionally.”

Why Cold Arctic Climates Amplify the Effect

Raising the water table makes the soil wetter and reduces oxygen around plant roots. Plants become somewhat less active and absorb less CO₂ under these conditions.

Even so, overall CO₂ emissions from the field decline.

“This is because wet conditions mean that the field needs less light before it starts to absorb more CO₂ than it releases. When this threshold is reached earlier in the day, you get more hours with net carbon uptake,” Zhao explains.

“Our calculations show that this effect is especially strong in the north, due to the long, light summer nights. These provide many extra hours where the system remains on the positive side, which can increase total CO₂ uptake significantly.”

Temperature turned out to be another crucial factor. Once soil temperatures climbed above about 12°C, microbial activity intensified.

“At higher temperatures, microorganisms break down organic material faster, and both CO₂ and methane emissions rise,” says Zhao.

“This means that the effect of high water levels is greatest in cool climates — and that future warming could reduce the benefit. In practice, this means water levels must be considered together with temperature and local conditions.”

Fertilization and Harvesting Shape the Carbon Balance

Farm management practices also played a role. Adding more fertilizer boosted grass growth.

“More fertilizer produced more biomass but did not lead to noticeable changes in CO₂ or methane emissions in our experiment,” says Zhao.

Harvesting had a clearer impact. When grass was cut and removed, the carbon stored in plant material left the system.

“If harvesting is very frequent, more carbon can be taken out than is built up again over time. The peat layer may gradually lose carbon even when water levels are kept high,” Zhao explains.

For that reason, Zhao emphasizes that water management, fertilizer use, and harvesting schedules must be evaluated together. Steps that lower emissions in the short term could reduce long term carbon storage, potentially weakening soil quality.

“One solution could be paludiculture, i.e. growing plant species that tolerate wet conditions so that biomass can be produced without keeping the soil dry.”

Local Differences Matter for Climate Accounting

The researchers also observed significant variation within the same field. Some areas absorbed CO₂, while nearby sections released substantial amounts.

“Such local variation can greatly influence national climate accounting and how measures are designed, because one standard emission factor may not reflect reality everywhere,” Zhao says.

“The results from our study show a clear need for more detailed measurements and more precise water-level management in practice, especially where soils and farming conditions vary significantly between locations.”