“The computational model and toolkit we developed could pave the way toward mass-manufacturable, sustainable optical devices and more efficient light harvesting tools that are based on diatom shells,” said research team member Santiago Bernal from McGill University in Canada. “This could be used for biomimetic devices for sensing, new telecommunications technologies or affordable ways to make clean energy.”

Diatoms are single-celled organisms found in most bodies of water. Their shells are covered in holes that respond to light differently depending on their size, spacing and configuration. In the journal Optical Materials Express, the researchers, led by McGill University’s David V. Plant and Mark Andrews, report the first optical study of an entire diatom shell. They analyzed how different sections of the shell, or frustule, respond to sunlight and how this response is connected to photosynthesis.

“Based on our findings, we estimate that the frustule can contribute a 9.83 percent boost to photosynthesis, especially during transitions from high to low sunlight,” said Yannick D’Mello, first author of the paper. “Our model is the first to explain the optical behavior of the entire frustule. So, it contributes to the hypothesis that the frustule enhances photosynthesis in diatoms.”

Combining microscopy and simulation

Diatoms have evolved for millions of years to survive in any aquatic environment. This includes their shell, which is composed of many regions that work together to harvest sunlight. To study the optical response of diatom frustules, the researchers combined computer optical simulations with several microscopy techniques.

The researchers began by imaging the architecture of the frustule using four high-resolution microscopy techniques: scanning near-field optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and dark field microscopy. They then used these images to inform a series of models that the researchers built to analyze each part of the frustule via 3D simulations.

Using these simulations, the researchers examined how different colors of sunlight interacted with the structures and identified three primary solar harvesting mechanisms: capture, redistribution and retention. This approach allowed them to combine the different optical aspects of the frustule and show how they work together to aid photosynthesis.

“We used different simulations and microscopy techniques to examine each component separately,” said D’Mello. “We then used that data to build a study of how light interacts with the structure, from the moment it gets captured, to where it gets distributed after that, how long it is retained, and until the moment it likely gets absorbed by the cell.”

Boosting photosynthesis

The study revealed that the wavelengths with which the shell interacted coincided with those absorbed during photosynthesis, suggesting it could have evolved to help capture sunlight. The researchers also found that different regions of the frustule could redistribute light to be absorbed across the cell. This suggests that the shell evolved to maximize the exposure of the cell to ambient light. Their findings also indicated that the light circulates inside the frustule long enough to aid photosynthesis during periods of transition from high to low illumination.

The new frustule model could make it possible to cultivate diatom species that harvest light at different wavelengths, allowing them to be customized for specific applications. “These light harvesting mechanisms of diatoms could be used to improve the absorption of solar panels by allowing sunlight to be collected at more angles, therefore partially removing the dependency of the panel to directly face the sun,” said Bernal.

The researchers are now working to refine their model and plan to apply their new toolkit to study other species of diatoms. After that, they plan to extend the model beyond the light interactions within a single frustule to examine behaviors between multiple frustules.

This work commemorates Dan Petrescu, who passed away last year. The research would not have been possible without his insights, assistance and dedication.

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“Our technique uses embroidery, which is pretty simple — you can stitch our yarns directly on the fabric,” said the study’s lead author Rong Yin, assistant professor of textile engineering, chemistry and science at North Carolina State University. “During fabric production, you don’t need to consider anything about the wearable devices. You can integrate the power-generating yarns after the clothing item has been made.”

In the study published in Nano Energy, researchers tested multiple designs for power-generating yarns. To make them durable enough to withstand the tension and bending of the embroidery stitching process, they ultimately used five commercially available copper wires, which had a thin polyurethane coating, together. Then, they stitched them onto cotton fabric with another material called PTFE.

“This is a low-cost method for making wearable electronics using commercially available products,” Yin said. “The electrical properties of our prototypes were comparable to other designs that relied on the same power generation mechanism.”

The researchers relied on a method of generating electricity called the “triboelectric effect,” which involves harnessing electrons exchanged by two different materials, like static electricity. They found the PTFE fabric had the best performance in terms of voltage and current when in contact with the polyurethane-coated copper wires, as compared to other types of fabric that they tested, including cotton and silk. They also tested coating the embroidery samples in plasma to increase the effect.

“In our design, you have two layers — one is your conductive, polyurethane-coated copper wires, and the other is PTFE, and they have a gap between them,” Yin said. “When the two non-conductive materials come into contact with each other, one material will lose some electrons, and some will get some electrons. When you link them together, there will be a current.”

Researchers tested their yarns as motion sensors by embroidering them with the PTFE fabric on denim. They placed the embroidery patches on the palm, under the arm, at the elbow and at the knee to track electrical signals generated as a person moves. They also attached fabric with their embroidery on the insole of a shoe to test its use as a pedometer, finding their electrical signals varied depending on whether the person was walking, running or jumping.

Lastly, they tested their yarns in a textile-based numeric keypad on the arm, which they made by embroidering numbers on a piece of cotton fabric, and attaching them to a piece of PTFE fabric. Depending on the number that the person pushed on the keypad, they saw different electrical signals generated for each number.

“You can embroider our yarns onto clothes, and when you move, it generates an electrical signal, and those signals can be used as a sensor,” Yin said. “When we put the embroidery in a shoe, if you are running, it generates a higher voltage than if you were just walking. When we stitched numbers onto fabric, and press them, it generates a different voltage for each number. It could be used as an interface.”

Since textile products will inevitably be washed, they tested the durability of their embroidery design in a series of washing and rubbing tests. After hand washing and rinsing the embroidery with detergent, and drying it in an oven, they found no difference or a slight increase in voltage. For the prototype coated in plasma, they found weakened but still superior performance compared with the original sample. After an abrasion test, they found that there was no significant change in electrical output performance of their designs after 10,000 rubbing cycles.

In future work, they plan to integrate their sensors with other devices to add more functions.

“The next step is to integrate these sensors into a wearable system,” Yin said.

The study, “Flexible, durable and washable triboelectric yarn and embroidery for self-powered sensing and human-machine interaction,” was published online in Nano Energy. Co-authors included Yu Chen, Erdong Chen, Zihao Wang, Yali Ling, Rosie Fisher, Mengjiao Li, Jacob Hart, Weilei Mu, Wei Gao, Xiaoming Tao and Bao Yang. Funding was provided by North Carolina State University through the NC State Faculty Research & Professional Development Fund and the NC State Summer REU program.

“Fetal MRI is a highly specialized and safe examination method that allows us to make accurate statements about brain maturation prenatally,” said study senior author Gregor Kasprian, M.D., associate professor of radiology from the Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-guided Therapy of the Medical University of Vienna in Austria.

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can expose the fetus to a group of conditions called fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Babies born with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders could develop learning disabilities, behavioral problems or speech and language delays.

“Unfortunately, many pregnant women are unaware of the influence of alcohol on the fetus during pregnancy,” said lead author Patric Kienast, M.D., a Ph.D. student in the Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-Guided Therapy, Division of Neuroradiology and Musculoskeletal Radiology at the Medical University of Vienna. “Therefore, it is our responsibility not only to do the research but also to actively educate the public about the effects of alcohol on the fetus.”

For the study, researchers analyzed MRI exams of 24 fetuses with prenatal alcohol exposure. The fetuses were between 22 and 36 weeks of gestation at the time of MRI. Alcohol exposure was determined via anonymous surveys of the mothers. The questionnaires used were the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), a surveillance project of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and health departments, and the T-ACE Screening Tool, a measurement tool of four questions that identify risk drinking.

In fetuses with alcohol exposure, the fetal total maturation score (fTMS) was significantly lower than in the age-matched controls, and the right superior temporal sulcus (STS) was shallower. The STS is involved in social cognition, audiovisual integration and language perception.

“We found the greatest changes in the temporal brain region and STS,” Dr. Kasprian said. “We know that this region, and specifically the formation of the STS, has a great influence on language development during childhood.”

Brain changes were seen in the fetuses even at low levels of alcohol exposure.

“Seventeen of 24 mothers drank alcohol relatively infrequently, with average alcohol consumption of less than one alcoholic drink per week,” Dr. Kienast said. “Nevertheless, we were able to detect significant changes in these fetuses based on prenatal MRI.”

Three mothers drank one to three drinks per week, and two mothers drank four to six drinks per week. One mother consumed an average of 14 or more drinks per week. Six mothers also reported at least one binge drinking event (exceeding four drinks on one occasion) during pregnancy.

According to the researchers, delayed fetal brain development could be specifically related to a delayed stage of myelination and less distinct gyrification in the frontal and occipital lobes.

The myelination process is critical to brain and nervous system function. Myelin protects nerve cells, allowing them to transmit information faster. Important developmental milestones in infants, as rolling over, crawling and language processing are directly linked to myelination.

Gyrification refers to the formation of the folds of the cerebral cortex. This folding enlarges the surface area of the cortex with limited space in the skull, enabling an increase in cognitive performance. When gyrification is diminished, functionality is reduced.

“Pregnant women should strictly avoid alcohol consumption,” Dr. Kienast said. “As we show in our study, even low levels of alcohol consumption can lead to structural changes in brain development and delayed brain maturation.”

It is unclear how these structural changes will affect brain development in these babies after birth.

“To assess this accurately, we need to wait for the children who were examined as fetuses at that time to get a little older, so that we can invite them back for further examinations,” Dr. Kienast said. “However, we can strongly assume that the changes we discovered contribute to the cognitive and behavioral difficulties that may occur during childhood.”

Co-authors are Marlene Stuempflen, M.D., Daniela Prayer, M.D., Benjamin Sigl, M.D., Mariana Schuette, M.D., Ph.D., and Sarah Glatter, M.D., M.M.Sc.

The researchers investigate diverse Type I-F CRISPR-Cas systems and engineer them to add genetic cargo — up to 10,000 additional genetic code letters — to the transposon’s cargo to make desired changes to a bacterium — in this case, E. coli.

The findings expand the CRISPR toolbox and could have significant implications in the manipulation of bacteria and other organisms at a time of need for flexible genome editing in therapeutics, biotechnology and more sustainable and efficient agriculture.

Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas as adaptive immune systems to withstand attacks from enemies like viruses. These systems have been adapted by scientists to remove or cut and replace specific genetic code sequences in a variety of organisms. The new finding shows that exponentially larger amounts of genetic code can be moved or added, potentially increasing CRISPR’s functionality.

“In nature, transposons have co-opted CRISPR systems to, selfishly, move themselves around an organism’s genome to help themselves survive. We’re in turn co-opting what occurs in nature by integrating with transposons a programmable CRISPR-Cas system that can move around genetic cargo that we design to perform some function,” said Rodolphe Barrangou, the Todd R. Klaenhammer Distinguished Professor of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences at NC State and corresponding author of a paper describing the research.

“Using this method, we showed that we can engineer genomes by moving chunks of DNA up to 10,000 letters,” Barrangou said. “Nature already does this — the bioinformatic data shows examples of up to 100,000 genetic letters moved around by transposon-based CRISPR systems — but now we can control and engineer it by using this system.

“To complete the hitchhiking analogy, we’re engineering the hitchhiker to bring certain luggage or cargo into the car to deliver some type of payload when the car arrives at its destination.”

The study shows the researchers proving the method’s effectiveness both in vitro on the lab bench and in vivo in E. coli. The researchers selected 10 different CRISPR-associated transposons to test the method’s effectiveness. The approach worked with all 10 transposons, although they varied in effectiveness based on factors like temperature and the size of the transposon’s cargo load.

“It was exciting to find that all of the systems we tested were functional after reconstructing them into genome editing tools from their native biological forms,” said Avery Roberts, an NC State graduate student and first author of the study. “We uncovered new features of these systems, but there’s likely many more relevant findings and applications to come as the field moves at a rapid pace.”

The research also showed that the method could be used with different transposons at the same time.

“Instead of just one gene — as is the case with other CRISPR systems like the more familiar Type II Cas-9 system — we can bring in a whole metabolic pathway to incorporate a whole new set of functions to an organism,” Barrangou said. “In the future, that could mean providing more flexible disease resistance or drought resistance to plants, for example.”

“We are excited about these findings and see the potential for applying these newly discovered systems in crop plants to accelerate the development of more resilient, higher-yielding varieties,” said Gusui Wu, global head of seeds research for Syngenta Seeds.

Barrangou and Wu add that the work in this study provides a great example of public-private partnerships that drive scientific discovery and train the workforce of tomorrow.

The paper appears in Nucleic Acids Research. Funding was provided by Syngenta Seeds. Co-authors of the paper include NC State graduate student Avery Roberts and former NC State Ph.D. student Matthew Nethery.

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