The research was published in the journal Chem. The lead authors are Yale postdoctoral researcher Justin Wedal and University of Missouri graduate research assistant Kyler Virtue. Senior authors include Yale professor Nilay Hazari and University of Missouri professor Wesley Bernskoetter.

Why Hydrogen Fuel Cells Matter

Hydrogen fuel cells work by turning chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity, similar to how a battery operates. Although the technology holds promise for clean energy, large-scale adoption has been limited by the difficulty and cost of producing and storing hydrogen efficiently.

“Carbon dioxide utilization is a priority right now, as we look for renewable chemical feedstocks to replace feedstocks derived from fossil fuel,” said Hazari, the John Randolph Huffman Professor of Chemistry, and chair of chemistry, in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS).

Formate as a Hydrogen Carrier

Formic acid, the protonated form of formate, is already manufactured at an industrial scale. It is commonly used as a preservative, an antibacterial agent, and in leather tanning. Many scientists also see it as a practical source of hydrogen for fuel cells, provided it can be made in a sustainable and efficient way.

Today, most industrial formate production relies on fossil fuels, which limits its long-term environmental benefits. Researchers say a cleaner alternative would be to produce formate directly from carbon dioxide in the air. This approach would both reduce greenhouse gas levels and create a useful chemical product.

The Catalyst Challenge

Transforming carbon dioxide into formate requires a catalyst, and that has been a major obstacle. Many of the most effective catalysts developed so far depend on precious metals that are costly, scarce, and often toxic. More abundant metals tend to break down quickly, which reduces their ability to drive the chemical reaction.

How Manganese Outperformed Expectations

The research team developed a new strategy to overcome this problem. By redesigning the catalyst structure, they significantly extended the working lifetime of manganese-based catalysts. As a result, these catalysts performed better than most precious metal alternatives.

According to the researchers, the key improvement came from adding an extra donor atom to the ligand design (ligands are atoms or molecules that bond with a metal atom and influence reactivity). This change helped stabilize the catalyst and maintain its effectiveness.

“I’m excited to see the ligand design pay off in such a meaningful way,” said Wedal.

Broader Implications for Clean Chemistry

The team believes this approach could be applied beyond carbon dioxide conversion. Similar design principles may improve catalysts used in other chemical reactions, potentially expanding the impact of the work.

Yale researchers Brandon Mercado and Nicole Piekut also contributed to the study. Funding for the research was provided by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science.

The research, which includes astronomers from Durham University in the UK, provides new insight into how this unseen substance helped draw ordinary matter together, forming galaxies such as the Milky Way and eventually planets like Earth.

The findings are based on new observations from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (Webb) and are published in the journal Nature Astronomy.

The international study was led jointly by Durham University, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and the École Polytechnique Fédéral de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.

How Dark Matter Shaped the Universe We See Today

The newly created map confirms earlier studies while revealing finer details about the relationship between dark matter and the normal matter that makes up everything we can see, touch, and interact with.

At the beginning of the Universe, both dark matter and ordinary matter were likely spread thinly across space. Scientists believe dark matter began clumping together first. Its gravity then pulled in normal matter, creating dense regions where stars and galaxies could begin to form.

This process set the overall pattern for how galaxies are distributed across the Universe today. By allowing galaxies and stars to form earlier than they otherwise would have, dark matter also helped create the conditions needed for planets to develop. Without this early influence, the elements required for life may never have formed within our galaxy.

Research co-lead author Dr. Gavin Leroy, in the Institute for Computational Cosmology, Department of Physics, Durham University, said: “By revealing dark matter with unprecedented precision, our map shows how an invisible component of the Universe has structured visible matter to the point of enabling the emergence of galaxies, stars, and ultimately life itself.

“This map reveals the invisible but essential role of dark matter, the true architect of the Universe, which gradually organizes the structures we observe through our telescopes.”

Detecting the Invisible Through Gravity

Dark matter cannot be seen directly because it does not emit, reflect, absorb, or block light. It also moves through ordinary matter without interacting with it, much like a ghost.

Its presence is detected through gravity. The new map shows this effect with greater clarity than ever before. One key piece of evidence is how closely maps of dark matter line up with maps of normal matter.

According to the researchers, Webb’s observations show that this alignment is not accidental. Instead, it reflects dark matter’s gravitational pull drawing normal matter toward it throughout the history of the Universe.

Research co-author Professor Richard Massey, in the Institute for Computational Cosmology, Department of Physics, Durham University, said: “Wherever you find normal matter in the Universe today, you also find dark matter.

“Billions of dark matter particles pass through your body every second. There’s no harm, they don’t notice us and just keep going.

“But the whole swirling cloud of dark matter around the Milky Way has enough gravity to hold our entire galaxy together. Without dark matter, the Milky Way would spin itself apart.”

Webb’s Deep View of the Cosmos

The map covers a region of sky about 2.5 times the size of the full Moon, located in the constellation Sextans.

Webb observed this area for approximately 255 hours and identified nearly 800,000 galaxies, many of them seen for the first time. To locate dark matter, the team measured how its mass bends space, which in turn bends the light traveling to Earth from distant galaxies — as if that light had passed through a warped windowpane.

The resulting map includes roughly ten times more galaxies than earlier ground-based maps of the same region and twice as many as those produced using the Hubble Space Telescope. It reveals new concentrations of dark matter and provides a much sharper view of areas previously observed by Hubble.

Research co-lead author Dr. Diana Scognamiglio, of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, said: “This is the largest dark matter map we’ve made with Webb, and it’s twice as sharp as any dark matter map made by other observatories.

“Previously, we were looking at a blurry picture of dark matter. Now we’re seeing the invisible scaffolding of the Universe in stunning detail, thanks to Webb’s incredible resolution.”

Instruments and Future Exploration

To improve distance measurements for many of the galaxies in the map, the research team used Webb’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI).

Durham University’s Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy contributed to the development of MIRI, which was designed and managed through launch by JPL. The instrument is especially effective at detecting galaxies hidden behind thick clouds of cosmic dust.

The team plans to expand their work by mapping dark matter across the entire Universe using the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid telescope and NASA’s upcoming Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope. These future observations will help scientists better understand dark matter’s basic properties and how it may have evolved over cosmic time.

The region of sky analyzed in this study will serve as a reference point, allowing future dark matter maps to be compared and refined with greater precision.

The latest research was funded by NASA, the RCUK/Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI), RCUK/STFC Central Laser Facility at the STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales.

The research was conducted by scientists from the School of Psychology at the University of Nottingham and the Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit at the University of Cambridge. By combining task based experiments with fMRI data, the team found no measurable difference in brain activity between successful episodic and semantic memory retrieval. The study was published in Nature Human Behaviour.

What Makes Episodic and Semantic Memory Different

Episodic memory allows people to recall specific past experiences that happened at a particular place and time. This form of memory enables individuals to mentally revisit moments from their lives, often described as “mental time travel.”

Semantic memory, by contrast, involves recalling facts and general knowledge about the world. These memories are not tied to the original time or place where the information was learned and can be accessed independently of that context.

Testing Memory With Closely Matched Tasks

To directly compare how these two types of memory operate, the researchers designed tasks that were carefully aligned. Forty participants were asked to remember pairings between logos and brand names. Some pairings reflected real-world knowledge and formed the semantic task, while others were learned during an earlier study phase and served as the episodic task.

During these memory tasks, participants underwent fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scanning. In the semantic task, they recalled brand details based on prior knowledge. In the episodic task, they remembered information about the logo and brand pairings learned earlier.

fMRI is a non-invasive brain imaging technique that measures activity by tracking changes in blood flow. When specific brain regions become active during tasks such as thinking, speaking, or remembering, they receive increased amounts of oxygen-rich blood. This allows researchers to produce detailed 3D images showing which parts of the brain are engaged, supporting studies of brain function, neurological conditions, and surgical planning.

Unexpected Findings From Neuroimaging

Dr. Roni Tibon, Assistant Professor in the School of Psychology, led the study and said the results challenged long-held assumptions.

“We were very surprised by the results of this study as a long-standing research tradition suggested there would be differences in brain activity with episodic and semantic retrieval. But when we used neuroimaging to investigate this alongside the task based study we found that the distinction didn’t exist and that there is considerable overlap in the brain regions involved in semantic and episodic retrieval.”

She also noted that the findings could offer new insights into memory related illnesses.

“These findings could help to better understand diseases like, dementia and Alzheimer’s as we can begin to see that the whole brain is involved in the different types of memory so interventions could be developed to support this view.”

Rethinking How Memory Is Studied

For many years, episodic and semantic memory have been treated as separate systems, leading researchers to investigate them independently. This approach has resulted in relatively few studies that examine both memory types within the same experimental framework.

Dr. Tibon believes the new evidence could help shift that perspective.

“Based on what we already knew from previous research in this area we really expected to see stark differences in brain activity but any difference we did see was very subtle, I think these results should change the direction of travel for this area of research and hopefully open up new interest in looking at both sides of memory and how they work together.”

Researchers from Wroclaw Medical University set out to examine what happens when this substance is tested under controlled scientific conditions. Their findings were published in the journal Scientific Reports. The team studied acidified sodium chlorite (ASC), which generates ClO₂, using two different formulations. One version, ASC1, was acidified with hydrochloric acid, while ASC2 used gluconic acid. Both were tested on multiple types of bacteria, including harmful strains like Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli, as well as beneficial probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus.

Antibacterial Effects Come at a Cost

The researchers confirmed that chlorine dioxide can kill bacteria. However, they found that it only works at concentrations that are also harmful to human cells. At a concentration of 30 ppm (0.003%), bacteria were destroyed, but the tests also showed clear damage to skin cells and high death rates in an in vivo model. The team also examined bacterial biofilms, which are protective layers that make infections harder to treat. While ASC was able to break down these biofilms, it did so while causing damage to surrounding tissue.

“The results of the study indicate that effective concentrations of ASC against biofilms are also toxic to eukaryotic cells, but it cannot be ruled out that a formulation for external use will be developed that ensures the safety of use with high anti-biofilm efficacy,” explains Dr. Ruth Dudek-Wicher from the Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University.

Risks to Beneficial Bacteria and the Gut

Dr. Dudek-Wicher also highlighted an important distinction between professionally produced, purified ClO₂ solutions, which are sometimes used in dentistry, and the mixtures prepared at home by MMS supporters. The study examined how ASC affects probiotic bacteria as well. The biofilm formed by Lactobacillus bacteria proved to be extremely sensitive to the substance, raising concerns about potential harm to the intestinal microflora.

“At the moment, we are not planning such studies, but we do not rule them out in the future. If a safe oral form of ASC is developed, an analysis of its impact on the microbiome will be necessary,” says Dr. Ruth Dudek-Wicher.

Misinformation and Dangerous Beliefs

The researchers made it clear that their work was not limited to laboratory science. They also aimed to address the spread of misinformation surrounding MMS.

“The most harmful mistake is to believe in the effectiveness of MMS without hard scientific evidence,” emphasizes Dr. Dudek-Wicher. “In pharmacy and medicine, the benefit-risk ratio is considered. In the case of MMS, the benefit is zero, and the risk is high, especially since the dosage is often administered using non-standardized droppers, which can achieve 1 ml by applying 15 or 30 drops. Such fluctuations in the oral dosage of a corrosive substance are extremely irresponsible,” she adds.

MMS is sometimes even promoted for use in children and pregnant women. Dr. Dudek-Wicher expressed particular concern about recommendations linking MMS to weight loss. “I was particularly shocked by the recommendations for combating obesity, which did not mention the effect of MMS on adipose tissue but only affirmed self-acceptance combined with stigmatization of obesity,” she says. She argues that the danger lies not only in the substance itself, but also in how it is marketed, using emotional appeals instead of evidence.

Combating Health Myths With Science and Empathy

Can misinformation about MMS be addressed effectively? According to Dr. Dudek-Wicher, the answer is yes, but it requires cooperation across disciplines and a more empathetic approach. “Yes, but it requires an integrated, interdisciplinary approach and empathy. Currently, the fight against myths is too often marked by a lack of respect and compassion. People turn to MMS because they are concerned about their health — and education must take this into account, with communication based on respect.”

She also stresses the importance of funding research that challenges false health claims. Science, she says, has a responsibility to protect the public from misinformation. That is why she welcomed the recognition of her university grant on MMS and the publication of the results in Scientific Reports.

Public Attention and Future Research

The research conducted at the Faculty of Pharmacy has attracted media coverage, including an article and video published on the homepage of the Polish Press Agency. According to the researchers, this interest reflects a broader demand for clear, evidence-based information.

“At the Faculty of Pharmacy, we are not afraid of difficult topics. The safety of patients who have lost their way in search of treatment is of utmost importance to us. And the interest in the results encourages us to continue our work. We are planning a series of analyses and publications on other miracle preparations — DMSO, adaptogens, ‘detoxification’ protocols — all in the spirit of scientific myth-busting,” conclude the authors, Dr. Dudek-Wicher and Prof Adam Junka from the Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Parasitology at Wroclaw Medical University.