UC researchers discovered evidence of a filter system at the Corriental reservoir, an important source of drinking water for the ancient Maya in what is now northern Guatemala.

A multidisciplinary team of UC anthropologists, geographers and biologists identified crystalline quartz and zeolite imported miles from the city. The quartz found in the coarse sand along with zeolite, a crystalline compound consisting of silicon and aluminum, create a natural molecular sieve. Both minerals are used in modern water filtration.

The filters would have removed harmful microbes, nitrogen-rich compounds, heavy metals such as mercury and other toxins from the water, said Kenneth Barnett Tankersley, associate professor of anthropology and lead author of the study.

“What’s interesting is this system would still be effective today and the Maya discovered it more than 2,000 years ago,” Tankersley said.

UC’s discovery was published in the journal Scientific Reports.

The Maya created this water filtration system nearly 2,000 years before similar systems were used in Europe, making it one of the oldest water treatment systems of its kind in the world, Tankersley said.

Researchers from UC’s College of Arts and Sciences traced the zeolite and quartz to steep ridges around the Bajo de Azúcar about 18 miles northeast of Tikal. They used X-ray diffraction analysis to identify zeolite and crystalline quartz in the reservoir sediments.

At Tikal, zeolite was found exclusively in the Corriental reservoir.

For the ancient Maya, finding ways to collect and store clean water was of critical importance. Tikal and other Maya cities were built atop porous limestone that made ready access to drinking water difficult to obtain for much of the year during seasonal droughts.

UC geography professor and co-author Nicholas Dunning, who has studied ancient civilizations most of his career, found a likely source of the quartz and zeolite about 10 years ago while conducting fieldwork in Guatemala.

“It was an exposed, weathered volcanic tuff of quartz grains and zeolite. It was bleeding water at a good rate,” he said. “Workers refilled their water bottles with it. It was locally famous for how clean and sweet the water was.”

Dunning took samples of the material. UC researchers later determined the quartz and zeolite closely matched the minerals found at Tikal.

UC assistant research professor Christopher Carr, an expert in geographic information system mapping, also conducted work on the UC projects at Bajo de Azúcar and Corriental.

“It was probably through very clever empirical observation that the ancient Maya saw this particular material was associated with clean water and made some effort to carry it back,” Dunning said.

UC anthropology professor emeritus Vernon Scarborough, another co-author, said most research on ancient water management has tried to explain how civilizations conserved, collected or diverted water.

“The quality of water put to potable ends has remained difficult to address,” Scarborough said. “This study by our UC team has opened the research agenda by way of identifying the quality of a water source and how that might have been established and maintained.”

Of course, reconstructing the lives, habits and motivations of a civilization 1,000 years ago is tricky.

“We don’t have absolute proof, but we have strong circumstantial evidence,” Dunning said. “Our explanation makes logical sense.”

“This is what you have to do as an archaeologist,” UC biologist and co-author David Lentz said. “You have to put together a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.”

Lentz said the filtration system would have protected the ancient Maya from harmful cyanobacteria and other toxins that might otherwise have made people who drank from the reservoir sick.

“The ancient Maya figured out that this material produced pools of clear water,” he said.

Complex water filtration systems have been observed in other ancient civilizations from Greece to Egypt to South Asia, but this is the first observed in the ancient New World, Tankersley said.

“The ancient Maya lived in a tropical environment and had to be innovators. This is a remarkable innovation,” Tankersley said. “A lot of people look at Native Americans in the Western Hemisphere as not having the same engineering or technological muscle of places like Greece, Rome, India or China. But when it comes to water management, the Maya were millennia ahead.”

They’re hypothesized to have formed about 100 million years after the Big Bang out of universal darkness from the primordial gases of hydrogen, helium, and trace light metals. These gases cooled, collapsed, and ignited into stars up to 1,000 times more massive than our sun. The bigger the star, the faster they burn out. The first stars probably only lived a few million years, a drop in the bucket of the age of the universe, at about 13.8 billion years. They’re unlikely to ever be observed, lost to the mists of time.

As the metal-free first stars collapsed and exploded into supernovae, they forged heavier elements such as carbon that seeded the next generation of stars. One type of these second stars is called a carbon-enhanced metal-poor star. They’re like fossils to astrophysicists. Their composition reflects the nucleosynthesis, or fusion, of heavier elements from the first stars.

“We can get results from indirect measurements to get the mass distribution of metal-free stars from the elemental abundances of metal-poor stars,” said Gen Chiaki, a post-doctoral researcher in the Center for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physics, Georgia Tech.

Chiaki is the lead author of a study published in the September 2020 issue of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. The study modeled for the first time faint supernovae of metal-free first stars, which yielded carbon-enhanced abundance patterns through the mixing and fallback of the ejected bits.

Their simulations also showed the carbonaceous grains seeding the fragmentation of the gas cloud produced, leading to formation of low-mass ‘giga-metal-poor’ stars that can survive to the present day and possibly be found in future observations.

“We find that these stars have very low iron content compared to the observed carbon-enhanced stars with billionths of the solar abundance of iron. However, we can see the fragmentation of the clouds of gas. This indicates that the low mass stars form in a low iron abundance regime. Such stars have never been observed yet. Our study gives us theoretical insight of the formation of first stars,” Chiaki said.

The investigations of Wise and Chiaki are a part of a field called ‘galactic archaeology.’ They liken it to searching for artifacts underground that tell about the character of societies long gone. To astrophysicists, the character of long-gone stars can be revealed from their fossilized remains.

“We can’t see the very first generations of stars,” said study co-author John Wise, an associate professor also at the Center for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physics, Georgia Tech. “Therefore, it’s important to actually look at these living fossils from the early universe, because they have the fingerprints of the first stars all over them through the chemicals that were produced in the supernova from the first stars.”

“These old stars have some fingerprints of the nucleosynthesis of metal-free stars. It’s a hint for us to seek the nucleosynthesis mechanism happening in the early universe,” Chiaki said.

“That’s where our simulations come into play to see this happening. After you run the simulation, you can watch a short movie of it to see where the metals come from and how the first stars and their supernovae actually affect these fossils that live until the present day,” Wise said.

The scientists first modeled the formation of their first star, called a Population III or Pop III star, and ran three different simulations that corresponded to its mass at 13.5, 50, and 80 solar masses. The simulations solved for the radiative transfer during its main sequence and then after it dies and goes supernova. The last step was to evolve the collapse of the cloud of molecules spewed out by the supernova that involved a chemical network of 100 reactions and 50 species such as carbon monoxide and water.

The majority of the simulations ran on the Georgia Tech PACE cluster. They were also awarded computer allocations by the National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE). Stampede2 at the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) and Comet at the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) ran some of the main sequence radiative transfer simulations through XSEDE allocations.

“The XSEDE systems Comet at SDSC and Stampede2 at TACC are very fast and have a large storage system. They were very suitable to conduct our huge numerical simulations,” Chiaki said.

“Because Stampede2 is just so large, even though it has to accommodate thousands of researchers, it’s still an invaluable resource for us,” Wise said. “We can’t just run our simulations on local machines at Georgia Tech.”

Chiaki said he was also happy with the fast queues on Comet at SDSC. “On Comet, I could immediately run the simulations just after I submitted the job,” he said.

Wise has been using XSEDE system allocations for over a decade, starting when he was a postdoc. “I couldn’t have done my research without XSEDE.”

XSEDE also provided expertise for the researchers to take full advantage of their supercomputer allocations through the Extended Collaborative Support Services (ECSS) program. Wise recalled using ECSS several years ago to improve the performance of the Enzo adaptive mesh refinement simulation code he still uses to solve the radiative transfer of stellar radiation and supernovae.

“Through ECSS, I worked with Lars Koesterke at TACC, and I found out that he used to work in astrophysics. He worked with me to improve the performance by about 50 percent of the radiation transport solver. He helped me profile the code to pinpoint which loops were taking the most time, and how to speed it up by reordering some loops. I don’t think I would have identified that change without his help,” Wise said.

Wise has also been awarded time on TACC’s NSF-funded Frontera system, the fastest academic supercomputer in the world. “We haven’t gotten to full steam yet on Frontera. But we’re looking forward to using it, because that’s even a larger, more capable resource.”

Wise added: “We’re all working on the next generation of Enzo. We call it Enzo-E, E for exascale. This is a total re-write of Enzo by James Bordner, a computer scientist at the San Diego Supercomputer Center. And it scales almost perfectly to 256,000 cores so far. That was run on NSF’s Blue Waters. I think he scaled it to the same amount on Frontera, but Frontera is bigger, so I want to see how far it can go.”

The downside, he said, is that since the code is new, it doesn’t have all the physics they need yet. “We’re about two-thirds of the way there,” Wise said.

He said that he’s also hoping to get access to the new Expanse system at SDSC, which will supersede Comet after it retires in the next year or so. “Expanse has over double the compute cores per node than any other XSEDE resource, which will hopefully speed up our simulations by reducing the communication time between cores,” Wise said.

According to Chiaki, the next steps in the research are to branch out beyond the carbon features of ancient stars. “We want to enlarge our interest to the other types of stars and the general elements with larger simulations,” he said.

Said Chiaki: “The aim of this study is to know the origin of elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and calcium. These elements are concentrated through the repetitive matter cycles between the interstellar medium and stars. Our bodies and our planet are made of carbon and oxygen, nitrogen, and calcium. Our study is very important to help understand the origin of these elements that we human beings are made of.”

Io is the most volcanically active moon in our solar system. It hosts more than 400 active volcanoes, spewing out sulfur gases that give Io its yellow-white-orange-red colors when they freeze out on its surface.

Although it is extremely thin — about a billion times thinner than Earth’s atmosphere — Io has an atmosphere that can teach us about Io’s volcanic activity and provide us a window into the exotic moon’s interior and what is happening below its colorful crust.

Previous research has shown that Io’s atmosphere is dominated by sulfur dioxide gas, ultimately sourced from volcanic activity. “However, it is not known which process drives the dynamics in Io’s atmosphere,” said Imke de Pater of the University of California, Berkeley. “Is it volcanic activity, or gas that has sublimated (transitioned from solid to gaseous state) from the icy surface when Io is in sunlight?”

To distinguish between the different processes that give rise to Io’s atmosphere, a team of astronomers used ALMA to make snapshots of the moon when it passed in and out of Jupiter’s shadow (they call this an “eclipse”).

“When Io passes into Jupiter’s shadow, and is out of direct sunlight, it is too cold for sulfur dioxide gas, and it condenses onto Io’s surface. During that time we can only see volcanically-sourced sulfur dioxide. We can therefore see exactly how much of the atmosphere is impacted by volcanic activity,” explained Statia Luszcz-Cook from Columbia University, New York.

Thanks to ALMA’s exquisite resolution and sensitivity, the astronomers could, for the first time, clearly see the plumes of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and sulfur monoxide (SO) rise up from the volcanoes. Based on the snapshots, they calculated that active volcanoes directly produce 30-50 percent of Io’s atmosphere.

The ALMA images also showed a third gas coming out of volcanoes: potassium chloride (KCl). “We see KCl in volcanic regions where we do not see SO₂ or SO,” said Luszcz-Cook. “This is strong evidence that the magma reservoirs are different under different volcanoes.”

Io is volcanically active due to a process called tidal heating. Io orbits Jupiter in an orbit that is not quite circular and, like our Moon always faces the same side of Earth, so does the same side of Io always face Jupiter. The gravitational pull of Jupiter’s other moons Europa and Ganymede causes tremendous amounts of internal friction and heat, giving rise to volcanoes such as Loki Patera, which spans more than 200 kilometers (124 miles) across. “By studying Io’s atmosphere and volcanic activity we learn more about not only the volcanoes themselves, but also the tidal heating process and Io’s interior,” added Luszcz-Cook.

A big unknown remains the temperature in Io’s lower atmosphere. In future research, the astronomers hope to measure this with ALMA. “To measure the temperature of Io’s atmosphere, we need to obtain a higher resolution in our observations, which requires that we observe the moon for a longer period of time. We can only do this when Io is in sunlight since it does not spend much time in eclipse,” said de Pater. “During such an observation, Io will rotate by tens of degrees. We will need to apply software that helps us make un-smeared images. We have done this previously with radio images of Jupiter made with ALMA and the Very Large Array (VLA).”

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

Imke de Pater and Statia Luszcz-Cook worked with Patricio Rojo of the Universidad de Chile, Erin Redwing of the University of California, Berkeley, Katherine de Kleer of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and Arielle Moullet of SOFIA/USRA in California.

This research titled “ALMA Observations of Io Going into and Coming out of Eclipse” has been accepted for publication in The Planetary Science Journal.

“There’s a gradual transition at the same latitude in North and South America,” said Erin Calfee, graduate student in the Department of Evolution and Ecology at the University of California, Davis, and first author on the paper, published Oct. 19 in PLOS Genetics. “There’s a natural barrier that is likely maintained by many different genetic loci.”

That barrier is mostly likely climate. Bees with majority African ancestry are unable to survive colder winters.

European colonists brought European species of honeybees (Apis mellifera) with them to the Americas as early as the 1600s. In addition to apiaries, these bees established in the wild alongside native bees.

In 1957, imported African honeybees of the subspecies Apis mellifera scutellata swarmed out of experimental hives in Brazil and started to rapidly spread, interbreeding with the resident European bees. Native to southern and eastern Africa, scutellata bees are known for their defensive behavior. They also carry some useful traits for beekeepers, such as resistance to Varroa mites.

Calfee, working with Professor Graham Coop and Associate Professor Santiago Ramirez from the Department of Evolution and Ecology and collaborators in Argentina, sequenced the genomes of bees collected at the northern and southern edges of the scutellata expansion.

They found that the bees at the northern and southern edges of the range have a highly variable mix of scutellata and European bee ancestry. The higher the latitude, the less scutellata ancestry is in the mix.

“The whole genome is tracking latitude and climate,” Calfee said. There are likely many genes involved in climate sensitivity and winter survival, she said. But Calfee also finds that in some parts of the genome scutellata ancestry has spread far beyond these climate limits in both North and South America, evidence that some scutellata genes are advantageous and not tied to climate sensitivity. In contrast, the researchers did not find any evidence for selection for European ancestry in the spread of scutellata bees.

The findings challenge the idea of a binary difference between “Africanized” and “European” honeybees, Ramirez said. In fact, all of these introduced honeybees are hybrids to some degree.

Diversity a resource for breeding bees

The results of the study could be of interest for breeding bees for desirable traits, such as resistance to pathogens. Although the researchers looked only at gene sequences and not the resulting phenotypes (except for one, wing length), the results do show which genetic loci are important because they are under selection in the hybrid zones.

Scutellata bees and hybrids have a lot more genetic diversity than European bees, and the researchers found that they lost very little of this diversity in their expansion from Brazil to California.

“Beekeepers can potentially draw from this genetic variation to breed for desirable traits,” Ramirez said. What started out as an invasion may become part of the solution to declining bee health.

“It makes sense but it’s kind of surprising because we have 1.5 million (honeybee) colonies being brought into California every spring to pollinate crops,” Ramirez said. Those domesticated bees are then trucked around the country, but they do not appear to have a large effect on the spread of African ancestry into feral honeybee populations.

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Materials provided by University of California – Davis. Original written by Andy Fell. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.