That’s according to a new study published in Family Practice.

Nearly one-quarter of Americans over the age of 40 have reported taking aspirin daily even if they don’t have a history of heart disease or stroke.

That’s a problem, says study author University of Georgia researcher Mark Ebell.

As a physician and epidemiologist at UGA’s College of Public Health, Ebell’s work evaluates the evidence underpinning clinical practice and health behaviors. The current recommendation for taking aspirin as the primary form of heart attack or stroke prevention is limited to adults aged 50 to 69 who have an increased cardiovascular risk.

“We shouldn’t just assume that everyone will benefit from low-dose aspirin, and in fact the data show that the potential benefits are similar to the potential harms for most people who have not had a cardiovascular event and are taking it to try to prevent a first heart attack or stroke,” said Ebell.

Aspirin was first found to reduce the risk of fatal and nonfatal heart attacks 30 years ago, and subsequent studies found evidence that aspirin may also reduce risk of stroke and colon cancer.

But aspirin use has always carried risks, said Ebell, namely bleeding in the stomach and brain.

More recent studies have begun to suggest that potential harms of taking aspirin may outweigh the benefits by today’s medical standards.

“If you look back in the 1970s and ’80s when a lot of these original studies were done, patients were not taking statin drugs to control cholesterol, their blood pressure was not as well controlled, and they weren’t getting screenings for colorectal cancer,” said Ebell.

Ebell and his colleague Frank Moriarty of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland compared aspirin studies using patient data from 1978 to 2002 to four large-scale aspirin trials occurring after 2005, when statin use and colorectal cancer screenings had become more widespread.

They found that for 1,000 patients treated for five years, there were four fewer cardiovascular events and seven more major hemorrhages. Ebell was particularly alarmed by the number of brain bleeds experienced by aspirin users.

“About 1 in 300 persons who took aspirin for five years experienced a brain bleed. That’s pretty serious harm. This type of bleeding can be fatal. It can be disabling, certainly,” he said. “One in 300 is not something that the typical doctor is going to be able to pick up on in their practice. That’s why we need these big studies to understand small but important increases in risk.”

Ebell cautions people who are concerned about their cardiovascular risk, but who haven’t had a heart attack or stroke, to talk with their doctors about other ways to prevent a major event.

These days, he says, treatment for blood pressure, cholesterol and diabetes are more aggressive, and the rate of other risk factors like smoking has dropped.

“There are so many things that we’re doing better now that reduce cardiovascular and colorectal cancer risk, which leaves less for aspirin to do,” he said.

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Materials provided by University of Georgia. Original written by Lauren Baggett. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

They live all over the world, including in Storrs, mostly found in woods and gardens, but a select few have one of the best views of campus from their cozy mesh tents inside the rooftop research greenhouses on the Biology/Physics Building — not typically a place where you’d want to house a bug that pierces plants to feast on their juices. But these aren’t typical bugs.

Worldwide, there are more than 3,000 species of tiny treehoppers, known for their ornate pronotum — the dorsal topside of first of the three segments of an insect’s thorax — that is commonly referred to as the treehopper’s “helmet.” Why the treehopper developed the enlarged, three-dimensional hood ornament that distinguishes it from the rest of the insect world remains a mystery to scientists, though it’s theorized that mimicry or camouflage designed to protect it from predators is a likely reason.

But a study from researchers in UConn’s Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, published today in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution, is shedding new light on a long-running debate over just how treehopper’s helmet evolved.

“I’ve always been interested in things that look really cool,” said Cera Fisher Ph.D. ’19, a post-doctoral researcher and UConn Outstanding Scholar Fellowship recipient who has been studying treehoppers since 2012 and is the lead author of the new study. “And, in particular, the kinds of body shapes where you’re like, ‘Whoa! How did that evolve?’ You know, where it’s just a little bit mind blowing.”

The treehopper’s helmet is, indeed, mind blowing: Some species resemble leaves or thorns, while others look as though ants or wasps are sitting perched atop the treehopper’s head. How that unique helmet came to be has been the subject of debate amongst the entomologists and evolutionary biologists that study the small insects: Does it develop using the same genes as the rest of the body wall? Or did it have to borrow developmental genes from somewhere else — maybe the legs or wings?

“With their closest relatives — and really almost every other bug — this same body part is just a flat piece of their back,” said Fisher. “With the treehopper, that body part projects in three different dimensions, giving them this whole new space in which they can evolve. They’ve been around for maybe 130 million years, but in that time they’ve evolved 3000 different shapes of this body part. That kind of diversity is really stunning.”

Fisher sought to tackle the question of how the treehopper evolved its helmet by sequencing the insect’s RNA, the nucleic acid present in all living cells that works as a messenger, carrying information on how genes are expressed. She developed her samples by first domesticating her own colony of Entylia carinata, which Fisher calls the “camelback treehopper” — a species that can be found in Connecticut, has an interesting c-shaped curve in its helmet, develops relatively quickly from egg to adult, and isn’t quite as picky about its diet as some other species. The UConn colony dines on fast-growing and easy-to-cultivate sunflower plants.

Next, Fisher dissected the tiny bugs — a painstaking process undertaken with a microscope and extremely fine tools — and extracted samples from the treehoppers. She also extracted samples from Homalodisca vitripennis, a species of leafhopper bug that is related to treehoppers but lacks a helmet and instead displays the more-typical, smooth-surfaced pronotum.

“The leafhopper is our comparison case,” said Fisher. “It’s standing in for what we think the treehopper’s ancestor what their common ancestor might have been more like.”

Fisher then sequenced the RNA from multiple body parts in both insects and waded through more than one billion data points in search of any similarities or signals that might point to specific genes at play in the formation of the treehopper’s helmet. Ultimately, while the leafhopper’s RNA sequence showed that its flat pronotum was substantially similar to its also flat mesonotum, which is the topside of its second body segment, the genes of the treehopper’s helmeted pronotum were most similar to its wings.

“We had three different ideas for things that might have led to the evolution of the helmet,” Fisher said. “We thought that maybe it was just using the same developmental pathways that normally are used in that dorsal body wall. We thought that it might be possible that it was reusing some wing-related genes, and then we thought it might be that it’s reusing genes that are normally involved in leg development.”

Fisher continued, “At a really high level, the RNA data indicates that the helmet is using a lot of the same genes that the wings use in development; it’s being built with the same genes.”

Elizabeth Jockusch, the lab director and professor overseeing Fisher’s work and co-author of the study, said the biggest surprise for her was in just how large the effect on gene expression was.

“I would have thought that even if the helmet had incorporated a developmental network from some other body part,” she said, “that we would still predominately see that it looked like its serial homologue,” meaning the body part nearest to it, the second thoracic segment. That, however, was not the case: the genetic landscape linking the wings to the helmet was overwhelmingly clear.

Jockusch said the other surprise from the study was that, between the two species — the treehopper and the leafhopper — everything in the gene expression lines up exactly the way you think it would, except for the treehopper’s helmet.

“Especially in insects, with how their body plans change, the way you get all this diversity is by these serially repeated body parts diverging from each other,” Fisher said. “What is interesting about the treehopper is that it’s a case of divergence of these serial homologues where it’s not just acquiring a few changes gradually over the course of hundreds of millions of years. It’s taking this entire suite of genes and redeploying it in this spot and, by doing so, you get a really different body part.”

Fisher’s study only involved one species of treehopper and one species of leafhopper, and only sampled the insects at one point in their development from immature nymphs to complete, helmeted adults. Her work on the fascinating little bugs will continue, though, with additional study that involves sampling the same species at different points in their nymphal development as well as sampling two additional species of treehoppers to see if the same RNA signaling occurs in across different members of the diverse treehopper family. The continuing study will also add another comparison species, the milkweed bug.

Fisher said that there are still questions to be answered about how the treehopper helmet came to be.

“You can try to get at the early changes, like what exactly changed to kick off all of this wing-like gene expression?” she said. “Another question is that, given that we have this wing-like gene expression, how do we get all these shapes? How do we get all this diversity? Because there’s a lot of diversity in insect wings, too, and a lot of the ways that insect wings can change shape and form have been studied a lot, especially in butterflies. But we don’t know how this three-dimensional thing might get tinkered with through natural selection.”

The paper, published today in the journal Nature Sustainability has identified 270,000 square kilometres of land — an area roughly the size of Colorado — in floodplains where conservation would be an economically sound way to avoid future flood damages.

Such lands, described as ‘100-year’ floodplains, are areas of land that have a greater than one percent chance of flooding in any given year, or a greater than 26 percent chance of flooding during a 30-year period.

Kris Johnson, TNC’s Deputy Director of Agriculture for North America, who co-authored the paper, said: “In these areas, we found that investing a dollar to protect these floodplains today could save at least five dollars in potential future flood damages.

“The study also tells us it would make even more economic sense to acquire and protect areas with a five percent or greater chance of flooding each year, or so-called 20-year floodplains.

“Not only would investing now to conserve undeveloped lands in floodplains likely save tens of billions of dollars in avoided flood damages but protecting these lands would also provide a host of additional benefits for habitat, wildlife, water quality and recreation, further strengthening the economic rationale for floodplain conservation.”

Oliver Wing, a flood risk scientist and researcher at the University of Bristol’s School of Geographical Sciences, who also co-authored the paper, added: “Our work has shown that projected socio-economic changes alone in the United States could almost double annual flood losses by the end of the century.

“One way to prevent this is to simply ensure that development occurs in lower-risk lands. We found that an area of land larger than that of the United Kingdom may be cheaper to purchase today than it would be to cover the costs of future damages to potential developments.

“We quantify, for the first time, the value of natural floodplain conservation to mitigating flood loss and find tracts of land in every one of the lower 48 states where this is a cost-effective strategy.”

The Bristol team, made up of hydrologists and flood mappers who came up with the analysis used to determine the findings of the research, also found that while the conservation of undeveloped, flood-prone areas would be broadly effective across the nation, it is likely to be particularly beneficial in the Southwest, the eastern Great Lakes, the Appalachians, and areas where population growth is anticipated in areas at risk of flooding.

This information will be used by TNC and — the researchers hope — planners and decision-makers across the US to inform conservation strategies which consider the potential costs of permitting unabated development in risky areas.

So far, 2019 has been the wettest year on record in the lower 48 US States, and flooding has been particularly widespread and destructive.

Flooding is among the most common of natural disasters, and it is the most-costly with average flood losses in the US increasing steadily to nearly $10 billion annually. Meanwhile, the American taxpayer-backed National Flood Insurance Program is in record debt at nearly $25 billion.

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Materials provided by University of Bristol. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.