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Category Archives: Mind Building
Mission to Jupiter’s icy moon confirmed
An icy ocean world in our solar system that could tell us more about the potential for life on other worlds is coming into focus with confirmation of the Europa Clipper mission’s next phase. The decision allows the mission to progress to completion of final design, followed by the construction and testing of the entire spacecraft and science payload.
“We are all excited about the decision that moves the Europa Clipper mission one key step closer to unlocking the mysteries of this ocean world,” said Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “We are building upon the scientific insights received from the flagship Galileo and Cassini spacecraft and working to advance our understanding of our cosmic origin, and even life elsewhere.”
The mission will conduct an in-depth exploration of Jupiter’s moon Europa and investigate whether the icy moon could harbor conditions suitable for life, honing our insights into astrobiology. To develop this mission in the most cost-effective fashion, NASA is targeting to have the Europa Clipper spacecraft complete and ready for launch as early as 2023. The agency baseline commitment, however, supports a launch readiness date by 2025.
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, leads the development of the Europa Clipper mission in partnership with the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for the Science Mission Directorate. Europa Clipper is managed by the Planetary Missions Program Office at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
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A single gene determines whether a fly has a good sense of sight or a good sense of smell
Trade-offs in the sizes of visual and olfactory organs are a common feature of animal evolution, but the underlying genetic and developmental mechanisms have not been clear. A study publishing August 22 in the journal Developmental Cell reveals that a single DNA variant that affects the timing of sensory organ development in fruit flies could explain the size trade-off between eyes and antennae, potentially providing a quick route to behavioral changes and adaptation.
Because the affected gene, eyeless/Pax6, is conserved across invertebrates and vertebrates, including humans, the discovery could represent a general mechanism for sensory organ size trade-offs across the animal kingdom.
The senses animals rely on have been shaped through evolution to better navigate and exploit the environment. As a result, even closely related species living in different ecological niches show variation in the sizes and shapes of their sensory structures. In arthropods such as fruit flies, trade-offs between the size of the eyes and of the antennae, where most olfactory organs are located, are pervasive.
“What we demonstrate is that there are consequences to subtle changes in the conserved mechanisms that govern how these sense organs develop,” says senior study author Bassem Hassan of Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière (ICM). “What this means more broadly is that one cannot fully understand how genetic variation and morphological variation relate to each other without understanding the developmental processes that translate the former into the latter.”
To examine the underlying mechanisms, Hassan and first author Ariane Ramaekers of Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière (ICM) combined comparative analyses of different fruit fly strains and species with developmental, molecular, and genome-editing approaches. Specifically, the authors focused on a structure called the eye-antennal imaginal disc (EAD), which consists of an eye field and a non-eye field and gives rise to all external head sensory organs during fruit fly development.
Hassan and Ramaekers found that the eye field is proportionally larger in Drosophila pseudoobscura (D. pse.) compared to Drosophila melanogaster (D. mel.), corresponding to a 35% increase in the number of ommatidia — small units that make up the insect compound eye. Similarly, the eye field is proportionally larger in the D. mel. strain called Canton-S compared with the D. mel. strain Hikone-AS, corresponding to a 12.5% increase in ommatidia number.
“These data suggest that, despite 17 to 30 million years of separated evolution between the two species groups, ommatidia number variation between D. mel. and D. pse. and between two D. mel. strains share a common developmental logic,” Hassan says.
To search for genetic causes of eye size variation, the researchers next examined DNA sequences that transcription factors bind to regulate the expression of the neighboring eyeless/Pax6 gene. They found that a single nucleotide variant — a G>A substitution — at a binding site that differentiates the small eye subspecies from the large eye subspecies. The G allele in small eye subspecies is predicted to have a higher affinity for the binding site, resulting in greater repression of eyeless/Pax6 gene expression compared to the A allele in the large eye subspecies.
Additional analyses showed that this variant occurs in natural fruit fly populations, and the A allele corresponds to both more ommatidia and smaller antennal width among different laboratory strains. Using CRISPR/Cas9 to introduce the A allele into a G-homozygous stock, the researchers demonstrated that the G>A substitution causes an increase in the number of ommatidia.
“We were surprised by the simplicity of the mechanism of sensory trade-offs that we identified: To vary sensory organ size — in this case, eye versus antennae — it suffices to slightly vary the expression of a single gene,” Ramaekers says. “It was particularly satisfactory to find that this gene, called Pax6, is the same one that builds the eye in all animals, including humans. We were also surprised that what matters to generate a trade-off is to change when, rather than where, Pax6 ends up being expressed. To make the eye bigger or smaller, it is sufficient to slightly speed up or slow down the subdivision of the head primordium into eye versus non-eye territories.”
For the authors, the findings raise several intriguing questions. For example, it’s not yet clear how the single-nucleotide variant changes the timing of Pax6 expression and sensory organ development. Moreover, it’s possible that controlling the timing of the expression of key developmental genes could be a general rule for changing the size of a tissue or organ. Another interesting question is whether sensory brain regions are affected by changes in the relative sizes of sensory organs.
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Genes tell the story of how the Asian tiger mosquito spread
Over the last 40 years, the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, has invaded every continent thanks to the transportation of its eggs via human trade and transportation. Researchers reporting in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases have now used the genomes of the mosquitoes to track the history of the invasion and expansion of the species through Albania, Italy, and Greece
Ae. albopictus is native to Southeast Asia and was first recorded outside this area, in Albania, in 1979. It rapidly spread throughout Europe, the United States, Latin America, and Africa. This worldwide invasion was fostered by human activities including the transportation of desiccated eggs by global and local used tire trade. The widespread presence of this aggressive, day-rime biting mosquito in urban habitats represents an increasing public health risk.
In the new work, research groups coordinated by della Torre Alessandra of the University of Rome and Caccone Adalgisa from Yale University studied Ae. albopictus samples collected from ovitraps between May and October 2016 in nine sites across Italy, one in Ablania, and one in Greece. At least five ovitraps were used in each site, and after the eggs were collected, they were allowed to hatch and grow into adults. DNA was then extracted and sequenced.
The genetic data revealed that the expansion of the mosquito occurred thanks to multiple independent — and likely ongoing — invasions from both native and previously invaded areas. The researchers put together a complex story of genetic drift, isolation of some populations, adaptation to local environments, and range expansion. Overall, the results are consistent with a major role of human activities in the expansion of Ae. albopictus.
“Identifying the main source populations implicated in recurrent invasions, as well as main routes and means of passive dispersal, is not only an interesting exercise to better characterize one of the most successful animal invasions in history but may also contribute to understand, and possibly prevent, epidemiologically relevant processes, such as spreading of insecticide resistance,” the researchers say.
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Jade Goody: Cancer charity hopes documentary serves as ‘a reminder’
The spike in cervical screenings after Jade Goody’s diagnosis did not last long, a charity says.
‘Multiple medicines’ side-effect risk for over-65s
Two million older people are risking side-effects from taking multiple medications, a charity warns.
Health24.com | People living in tree-filled suburbs have better mental wellbeing
City dwellers who live on tree-lined streets might be happier and healthier for it, a large new study suggests.
The study, of nearly 47 000 urban residents, found that those who lived in areas shaded by tree canopy reported less psychological distress and better general health over six years.
Trees are health-promoting
Green grass, on the other hand, didn’t cut it: People in neighbourhoods with more grassy areas actually reported poorer health than those largely surrounded by concrete.
The researchers said the findings suggest there might be something particularly health-promoting about trees. Maybe people who have them nearby have more chances for walking and recreation, or enjoy a buffer against noise and traffic pollution, for example.
The bottom line: Trees seem to matter to our well-being, said Kathleen Wolf, a research social scientist at the University of Washington’s College of the Environment, in Seattle.
Wolf, who was not involved in the study, said it adds to a body of research finding a link between “green space” and better health.
A UK study published last month is a case in point. It found that people who spent two hours a week outdoors gave higher ratings to their physical and mental health than those who preferred the great indoors.
“If you have one study showing an association,” Wolf said, “it gives you a heads-up – ‘Hey, this is an interesting finding.'”
Fewer distress symptoms
When multiple studies show the same pattern, it suggests something is really there, she added.
A strength of the new study is that it followed people over time, Wolf said, rather than measuring well-being only once.
On average, it found, city dwellers who lived near more tree canopy were less likely to develop new symptoms of psychological distress – like nervousness, hopelessness and unexplained fatigue.
The benefit was seen among people living in areas with tree coverage of least 30% within a mile of home. Compared with residents with few nearby trees, they were about one-third less likely to report distress symptoms on a standard questionnaire.
They were also one-third less likely to downgrade ratings of their general health to “fair” or “poor”.
Of course, there could be many things about living in greener areas that make people happier and healthier. But the researchers tried to account for those differences – weighing factors like household income, education levels and marital status.
A better sense of perspective
Even then, trees still mattered to mental and physical well-being.
Why would that be? Wolf pointed to various possibilities. Tree-lined streets and parks may give people more opportunities for exercise – which, she noted, is important not only for physical well-being, but mental health, too.
There’s also a theory that being out in nature offers a better sense of perspective, which makes our daily stresses seem less significant.
“Human beings tend to ruminate on the bad things that happen, rather than the good,” Wolf said. Some of that mental playback may fade when you’re outdoors, with things to see, smell and experience, she noted.
Living near grassy surroundings, on the other hand, was linked to higher odds of distress and poor health.
The study cannot reveal why, said Sjerp de Vries, a researcher with Wageningen University and Research in the Netherlands. But, he said, unlike grass, trees can make an area more walkable.
Boosting immune function
Trees are also more obvious, de Vries said. Tall trees, especially, make their presence known whether people are outside or inside.
Plus, de Vries noted, there is an argument to be made that trees are beneficial because they release chemicals called phytoncides, which may boost human immune function.
He wrote an editorial accompanying the new study, which was published online in JAMA Network Open.
The study results were based on 46 786 adults aged 45 and older in three large Australian cities. All remained in the same neighbourhood over six years, and completed the same health questionnaires at the beginning and end of the study period.
It’s possible, de Vries said, that healthier people chose to live in tree-lined areas. But other studies have suggested that “green space” has particular benefits for lower-income people, he noted. And they have less choice about where to live than their wealthier counterparts.
Image credit: iStock
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Health24.com | When is it time for seniors to hand over the car keys?
Driving is a source of independence for many seniors, so determining when they should hang up the keys requires careful consideration, an expert says.
“Driving retirement is a normal part of ageing, and should be carefully considered and discussed openly,” said Dr Ericka Tung, an internist and geriatrician at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota.
No single test
“Primary care providers are uniquely poised to counsel patients about driving safety because they understand their patients’ health conditions, capacities, challenges and goals,” Tung said in a clinic news release. She is lead author of a paper in the journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings that examines the issue.
There’s no single test to determine whether an older person should continue driving, but health care providers can look at several areas of physical and mental functioning to assess a senior’s driving fitness.
Those areas are vision, including depth perception and visual fields; thinking skills, including changes in memory, attention or language; mobility and physical function, including range of motion and coordination of the neck, upper body and lower body; health conditions that could affect the ability to safely operate a vehicle, and medications that could impair alertness.
Another key factor is input from family members or other care providers, according to Tung and her colleagues.
Open dialogue encouraged
These people can provide information about the senior’s driving performance, ability to do daily basic tasks of living, or their history of falls. All can help determine if the senior needs a driver safety refresher course or should stop driving.
Because driving gives many seniors a sense of independence and control, any decision about hanging up their car keys must be communicated clearly and with compassion, the authors said.
It’s critical that seniors stop driving at the appropriate time – not after they’ve had a crash.
“Open dialogue is encouraged between patients, families and primary care teams to ensure safety on the road,” Tung said.
Image credit: iStock
Evidence suggests microplastics in water pose ‘minimal health risk’
The World Health Organization says its findings are based on the “limited information” available.
Health24.com | Scientists creating gene map of human ‘microbiome’
The number of genes in bacteria that live in and on people could top 1 billion trillion – and at least half appear to be unique to their host.
That mindboggling math comes from scientists at Harvard Medical School and Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston who have set out to map all genes of the human microbiome.
A gateway study
The research could reveal links between microbiome genes and human disease, and lead to development of precision treatments, they said.
So far, researchers have analysed the genes of bacteria in the human mouth and gut. Those findings were published in the journal Cell Host & Microbe.
“Ours is a gateway study, the first step on what will likely be a long journey toward understanding how differences in gene content drive microbial behaviour and modify disease risk,” said study first author Braden Tierney, a graduate student at Harvard Medical School.
The diversity of genes is far greater than researchers expected. They said the functions of microbial genes unique to each person are different from those of shared genes.
The team analysed more than 2 100 bacteria samples from people’s guts and more than 1 400 from their mouths. The samples contained nearly 46 million bacterial genes – about 24 million from the mouth and 22 million in the gut.
Trillions of bacteria
More than half of the bacterial genes (23 million) occurred only once, meaning they were unique to the individual. Of those unique genes, 11.8 million came from the mouth and 12.6 million from the gut.
The human microbiome contains trillions of bacteria. Most are harmless, many beneficial, but some cause disease. There is growing evidence that these microbes play an important role in health.
Changes in levels and types of bacteria in and on your body have been linked to development of conditions ranging from tooth decay to diabetes, chronic inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis, the study authors noted.
So far, most research has focused on how various types of bacteria might affect disease risk. By contrast, this new research analyses the genes in these bacteria.
Study co-senior author Chirag Patel said that “just like no two siblings are genetically identical, no two bacterial strains are genetically identical, either”. Patel is an assistant professor of biomedical informatics at Harvard Medical School.
“Two members of the same bacterial strain could have markedly different genetic makeup, so information about bacterial species alone could mask critical differences that arise from genetic variation,” he explained in a Harvard news release.
Valuable clues
Learning more about the genes in these bacteria could lead to precisely targeted treatments, according to study senior co-author Alex Kostic. He’s an assistant professor of microbiology at Harvard and an investigator at the Joslin Diabetes Center.
“Such narrowly targeted therapies would be based on the unique microbial genetic make-up of a person rather than on bacterial type alone,” Kostic said.
Profiling these unique genes could provide valuable clues about past exposures to different pathogens or environmental influences, as well as disease risk, he concluded.
Image credit: iStock
