The discovery is based on a unique aspect of the material where electrons can be separated by their chirality, or handedness — similar to DNA. The findings may offer a new route to efficient generation of electricity from light, as well as for thermal or chemical sensing.

“We discovered that the Weyl semimetal Tantalum Arsenide, has a colossal bulk photovoltaic effect — an intrinsic, or non-linear, generation of current from light more than ten times larger than ever previously achieved,” said Boston College Associate Professor of Physics Kenneth Burch, a lead author of the article, titled “Colossal mid-infrared bulk photovoltaic effect in a type-I Weyl semimetal.”

“Furthermore this is in the mid-infrared regime, which means this material can also be used for chemical or thermal sensing, as well as waste heat recovery,” Burch added.

Typically, light is converted to electricity by creating a built-in electric field in a semiconductor, Burch said. “This is achieved through chemical modulation, and results in a fundamental upper limit to the potential efficiency — known as the Shockley-Queisser limit.”

The alternative approach taken by the team explored exploiting the handedness of the electrons in the material to intrinsically generate direct current through the nonlinear mixing of the waves of light, Burch said.

This approach has typically been too small to be useful. But researchers recently realized it is closely connected to the topological properties of the electrons. That prompted predictions that the unique, DNA-like behavior of electrons in Weyl semimetals could produce enormous nonlinear effects.

“We focused on answering whether Weyl semimetals live up to the predictions of large, intrinsic nonlinear responses to generate current,” said Burch, co-author of the paper with Philip Moll of Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, and Ni Ni of UCLA.

He added that the team was surprised at the magnitude of the electronic effect, which was provoked by a new fabrication approach.

“The size of the effect was far larger than we dreamed,” said Burch. “A previous group from MIT found their response was dominated by thermal, or extrinsic, terms, our use of the focused ion beam fabricated devices and symmetry allowed us to uncover the colossal bulk photovoltaic effect at room temperature.”

Burch said the team is working to determine the “sweet spot” for the effect, specifically what is the ideal device configuration and wavelength of light.

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Pure ice is blue because ice absorbs more red light than blue light. Most icebergs appear white or blue when floating in seawater, but since the early 1900s explorers and sailors have reported seeing peculiar green icebergs around certain parts of Antarctica.

The green icebergs have been a curiosity to scientists for decades, but now glaciologists report in a new study that they suspect iron oxides in rock dust from Antarctica’s mainland are turning some icebergs green. They formulated the new theory after Australian researchers discovered large amounts of iron in East Antarctica’s Amery Ice Shelf.

Iron is a key nutrient for phytoplankton, microscopic plants that form the base of the marine food web. But iron is scarce in many areas of the ocean.

If experiments prove the new theory right, it would mean green icebergs are ferrying precious iron from Antarctica’s mainland to the open sea when they break off, providing this key nutrient to the organisms that support nearly all marine life.

“It’s like taking a package to the post office. The iceberg can deliver this iron out into the ocean far away, and then melt and deliver it to the phytoplankton that can use it as a nutrient,” said Stephen Warren, a glaciologist at the University of Washington and lead author of the new study in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, a journal of the American Geophysical Union. “We always thought green icebergs were just an exotic curiosity, but now we think they may actually be important.”

A mystery of color

Warren started studying the phenomenon on an Australian expedition in 1988, when he took a core sample from a green iceberg near the Amery Ice Shelf on the coast of East Antarctica.

Interestingly, the green ice he saw was a deep emerald hue much darker and clearer than that of normal icebergs — a signal to scientists that green ice might be different from regular iceberg ice.

“When we climbed up on that iceberg, the most amazing thing was actually not the color but rather the clarity,” Warren said. “This ice had no bubbles. It was obvious that it was not ordinary glacier ice.”

Icebergs break off of glaciers and ice shelves that jut out into the sea. Typical glacier ice forms when layers of snow build up and solidify over time, so it naturally has air pockets that reflect light.

But in Antarctica, some icebergs have a layer of what’s called marine ice: ocean water frozen to the underside of an overhanging ice shelf. Marine ice is clearer and darker than glacier ice because it doesn’t have any air pockets to reflect light.

When Warren and his colleagues analyzed that iceberg and other green icebergs sampled by Australian expeditions in the 1980s, they found the green parts were made of marine ice and not glacier ice. They suspected an impurity in the ocean water underneath the Amery Ice Shelf was turning some marine ice green.

Their first thought was that dissolved organic carbon, microscopic particles of long-dead marine plants and animals, was getting trapped in the ice as the water froze to the underside of the ice shelf. Dissolved organic carbon is yellow, so if pure ice is blue, the addition of yellow particles could turn the ice green, according to Warren.

But when Warren and his colleagues sampled icebergs on a subsequent expedition in 1996, they found green marine ice had the same amount of organic material as blue marine ice, so something else had to be responsible for the green color.

Rock dust in the sea

The problem nagged at Warren until a few years ago, when an oceanographer at the University of Tasmania tested an ice core from the Amery Ice Shelf for its iron content. She found marine ice near the bottom of the core had nearly 500 times more iron than the glacial ice above.

Iron oxides found in soil, rocks, and common rust tend to have warm, earthy hues — yellows, oranges, reds and browns. So Warren began to suspect iron oxides in the marine ice could turning blue ice green. But where was the iron coming from?

As glaciers flow over bedrock, they grind rocks to a fine powder known as glacial flour. When the ice meets the sea, this glacial flour flows into the ocean. If the rock dust becomes trapped under an ice shelf, the particles could be incorporated in marine ice as it forms.

Warren now suspects iron oxides in glacial flour from rocks on Antarctica’s mainland are responsible for creating the stunning emerald icebergs. He and the Australian iron researchers now propose to sample icebergs of different colors for their iron content and light-reflecting properties. If their theory proves correct, green icebergs could be more important than scientists thought.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=y3sJIdkEpws

The finding could have a big impact on how researchers estimate the structure, climate, and habitability of exoplanets as they try to identify planets that are similar to Earth. The research appears in the March 4 online edition of the journal Nature Astronomy.

NASA’s Kepler mission revealed that about 30% of stars similar to our Sun harbor “Super-Earths.” Their sizes are somewhere between that of Earth and Neptune; they have nearly circular and coplanar orbits; and it takes them fewer than 100 days to go around their star. Yet curiously, a great number of these planets exist in pairs with orbits that lie just outside natural points of stability.

That’s where obliquity — the amount of tilting between a planet’s axis and its orbit — comes in, according to Yale astronomers Sarah Millholland and Gregory Laughlin.

“When planets such as these have large axial tilts, as opposed to little or no tilt, their tides are exceedingly more efficient at draining orbital energy into heat in the planets,” said first author Millholland, a graduate student at Yale. “This vigorous tidal dissipation pries the orbits apart.”

A similar, but not identical, situation exists between Earth and its moon. The moon’s orbit is slowly growing due to dissipation from tides, but Earth’s day is gradually lengthening.

Laughlin, who is a professor of astronomy at Yale, said there is a direct connection between the over-tilting of these exoplanets and their physical characteristics. “It impacts several of their physical features, such as their climate, weather, and global circulations,” Laughlin said. “The seasons on a planet with a large axial tilt are much more extreme than those on a well-aligned planet, and their weather patterns are probably non-trivial.”

Millholland said she and Laughlin already have started work on a follow-up study that will examine how these exoplanets’ structures respond to large obliquities over time.

The NASA Astrobiology Institute and the National Science Foundation Research Fellowship Program supported the study.

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Materials provided by Yale University. Original written by Jim Shelton. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.