Migratory locusts differ from other insects in the anatomical structure of their olfactory brain, the antennal lobe, which receives and processes olfactory information from the antenna. The locust antennal lobe has a unique and unconventional neuronal architecture with more than 2000 spherical functional olfactory units, the glomeruli, whereas most other insects have only between 20 and 300 glomeruli in the antennal lobe.

Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology are interested in how insects perceive odors and process them in their brains. Above all, however, they want to know how odor perception affects their behavior.

“Our goal was to solve the long-standing puzzle of how odors are encoded in the extremely large population of glomeruli, the structural and functional units in the antennal lobe of migratory locusts. This highly complex architecture of the locust antennal lobe has been observed for decades, but the underlying mechanisms of odor coding have remained a mystery due to the lack of suitable methods,” says Xingcong Jiang, first author of the study.

The introduction of the CRISPR/Cas9 method represented a methodological breakthrough for the researchers, as it enabled the establishment of the first transgenic migratory locusts expressing the genetically encoded calcium sensor GCaMP in olfactory sensory neurons. GCaMP is a protein that fluoresces when it binds calcium, which is released into cells when they are active. Using functional 2-photon calcium imaging, the scientists were able to measure and map the spatial activation patterns for a broad spectrum of ecologically relevant odors in all six developmental stages of the migratory locust.

“Our results reveal an unusual functional ring-shaped organization of the antennal lobe consisting of specific glomerular clusters. This glomerular arrangement, which we could confirm by targeted genetic expression of a well-characterized olfactory receptor, is present throughout development, and the pattern of olfactory coding within the glomerular population is consistent at all developmental stages, from the first nymph stage to the adult locust,” summarizes Silke Sachse, head of the Olfactory Coding Research Group at the Max Planck Institute, one of the study leaders.

The migratory locust is not a model organism like the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster. Gene transformation was therefore a major challenge for the researchers. Many parameters have to be studied, which makes the process very time-consuming. The unusually large brain volume of the locust also makes it difficult to capture and analyze image data. “We are the first group in the world to successfully apply the site-specific knock-in method to locusts. We know from the literature that the success rate for this type of transgenesis is very low, but we have succeeded,” says Xingcong Jiang.

Interestingly, the spatial coding of odors in the locust antennal lobe reflects the chemical structure of the odors rather than their valence — whether pleasant or repulsive — unlike in flies, for example, where the valence of odors is already represented in the antennal lobe, with pleasant odors activating different structures than unpleasant ones. “We have observed that odors of certain chemical classes evoke a certain pattern: For example, aromatic compounds with similar chemical structure but opposite behavioral significance evoke stronger responses in the peripheral regions of the antennal lobe. We conclude that the representation of odor valence is not encoded in the antennal lobe, but in higher brain centers such as the mushroom body and the lateral horn,” says Bill Hansson, Director of the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, and one of the lead authors.

The ring structure of the olfactory code is a unique anatomical feature of the migratory locust. However, this coding mechanism is not necessarily transferable to other locust species. “We wonder whether this ring-shaped structure is a worse alternative or a better solution with advantages over the glomerular arrangement we found in flies. Future studies investigating the rules of odor coding in other insect species will show whether other locust species have developed a similar coding pattern,” says Silke Sachse, who already has further studies in mind.

How insects perceive and process odors and how odor perception ultimately affects their behavior is important for a deeper understanding of the ecological interactions of insects with their environment. This can, for example, help to optimize the control of crop pests such as migratory locusts. “We believe that a better understanding of the odor coding mechanisms in the primary olfactory center of the locust brain will significantly deepen our knowledge of the neuronal modulation underlying olfaction-mediated behaviors, such as the formation of locust swarms,” says Bill Hansson.

Since 1958, Sweden has registered all cancer patients in the National Cancer Register. Swedish researchers have now used this register to study all cancer survivors who had cancer as a child, adolescent or adult to examine outcomes in later life. The results have been published in the scientific journal The Lancet Regional Health — Europe.

“If you’ve had cancer as a child or adolescent, you have an increased risk of almost all diagnoses in the future. This study lays the foundation for understanding why this is so and what decision-makers need to take into account when it comes to cancer care,” says Laila Hübbert, researcher at Linköping University and consultant at the Cardiology Clinic at Vrinnevi Hospital in Norrköping.

The study’s data spans 63 years. From this data, approximately 65,000 cancer patients under the age of 25 were compared with a control group of 313,000 individuals (a ratio of 1:5), where age, sex and housing situation were matched with the patient group. From other registers, the researchers retrieved information on morbidity, mortality and demography.

The researchers found that the cancer survivors were about three times more likely to develop cancer later in life, 1.23 times more likely to have cardiovascular disease and had a 1.41 times higher risk of accidents, poisoning and suicide.

At present, the healthcare system usually follows up cancer survivors five years after the end of treatment. In other words, you are usually considered healthy if the cancer has not returned after five years, and no further follow-up is planned. But the current study, and also previous ones, show that this is probably not enough.

“Cancer survivors carry with them a fragility for the rest of their lives that puts them at higher risk of new diseases. It’s mainly the chemotherapy and radiation treatment that increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. This means that patients shouldn’t be released prematurely without planned and ongoing follow-up. It’s important to identify these risk factors and diseases early,” says Laila Hübbert.

The researchers have also seen that socioeconomic factors play a major role in the risk of disease and death after cancer in young years. Thanks to a cross-check of registers, the researchers were able to see that the risk increases for those with a lower level of education, a foreign background, or who remain unmarried. At the same time, this study shows that the risk of disease and death after cancer in children and adolescents is the same regardless of where you live in Sweden.

Martin Singull is a professor of mathematical statistics and has worked closely with the clinics in order to analyse and combine the large amounts of data that come from many different sources.

“We have used proven statistical models. But it’s the complexity of the data that makes it challenging. It comes from different sources, and we also want to be able to pick out the information we want. That’s why we’ve also collaborated with computer scientist Robin Keskisärkkä, who has built the database,” says Martin Singull.

The next step for the researchers is to break down the results and probe into specific questions and understand why things look the way they do. This will include looking more at socioeconomic factors, cardiovascular disease linked to cancer, so-called cardio-oncology, and other forms of cancer.

“There aren’t really many countries that can carry out such a comprehensive survey. In Sweden, we have such fine comprehensive and high-quality national registers so it’s unique to be able to do this,” says Laila Hübbert.

In a first of its kind study, researchers also calculated that there are enough fish in the seas surrounding the remote tropical islands that were the focus of the research within hunting range of seabirds to support these restored populations.

This is an important factor that has not been considered in previous island restoration studies and could become a vital consideration to guide future island restoration projects around the world, researchers behind the study say.

The findings by an international team of marine scientists led by researchers at Lancaster University have been published today by the journal Conservation Biology.

“We know that invasive species, such as rats, have devastating impacts on native seabird populations — they eat the eggs, chicks and even sometimes adult birds,” said Dr Ruth Dunn of Lancaster University and lead author of the study.

“It’s been shown that restoration projects that remove invasive species, such as rats, are effective. However, when there are limited resources in planning island restoration projects it is also important to know if seabird populations are restored that there will be enough fish in the sea for them to hunt and eat — especially as threats such as over-fishing and climate change make fish populations more uncertain.

“Our study was the first to factor in this important consideration and encouragingly for the remote islands we studied we found that there is enough fish in the sea for restored populations of seabirds.”

The researchers calculated the energy requirements of restored seabird populations, and prey fish quantities using available data. The seas surrounding the remote Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, the focus of the study, include areas of nature reserves where fishing is restricted. These protected areas may have affected the availability of prey fish for restored seabird populations, the scientists say.

“We hope our findings will be an important case study to guide island restoration projects elsewhere, including potentially the consideration of marine protected areas that limit fishing as part of these projects,” said Dr Dunn.

The research team looked at three projected scenarios where invasive rats would be eradicated from 25 islands, and natural habitat, such as native forest and savannah, were restored to different degrees.

Their modelling shows that if rats were removed from these 25 islands that could result in populations of lesser noddies, sooty terns and red-footed boobies recovering to nearly 24,000 breeding pairs — an 18-fold increase.

If native vegetation was restored to half of the surface area of these islands then breeding pairs on these rat-eradicated islands could achieve 83,000 pairs. And if vegetation was restored to three quarters of these islands’ surface area then that could lead to more than 280,000 breeding pairs of lesser noddies, sooty terns and red-footed boobies.

The benefits are not limited to what can be seen on the islands. Previous studies by the research team have shown that seabirds play a critical role in cycling nutrients from the deep ocean onto islands, and then onto adjacent coral reefs surrounding the islands.

The seabirds’ droppings, known as guano, carry nitrogen and phosphorus, important nutrients that leach into the surrounding seas fertilising surrounding coral reef environments.

“Removing invasive predators is vitally important for seabirds to thrive in these tropical island environments, but we also know from previous studies that when we have more seabirds we see positive impacts for coral reefs in the seas surrounding tropical islands,” said Dr Dunn.

The researchers found that the increase in seabird numbers would equate to nitrogen input from seabird droppings increasing from 78 tonnes a year to 170 tonnes a year.

This would provide a huge boost to life under the waves with a 52 per cent increase in fish biomass on the reefs — that equates to around 50,000 tonnes more reef fish around the islands.

In addition, the scientists predict that under these restored conditions there would also be a significant increase in the number of grazing fish, such as parrotfish, doing important jobs such as eating algae and removing dead coral. These roles are critical in helping reefs recover from disturbances such as storms and bleaching events.

“These findings underscore the substantial role island restoration can have not just in bolstering vulnerable seabird populations, but also in enhancing the resilience of adjacent coral reefs to the impacts of climate change,” said Professor Nick Graham of Lancaster University, a co-author of the study.

The marine scientists behind the study say their findings are an important case study to show it is important to consider the wider context when planning resources for island restoration projects. By modelling the impacts of different levels of native vegetation restoration, and available levels of food in surrounding seas, restoration projects can help ensure the best returns for nature.

The research, which was funded by the Bertarelli Foundation, is detailed in the paper ‘Island restoration to rebuild seabird populations and amplify coral reef functioning’.

The paper’s authors are: Dr Ruth Dunn, Dr Cassandra Benkwitt and Professor Nick Graham of Lancaster University; Dr Olivier Maury and Nicholas Barrier from the Université de Montpellier, and Dr Peter Carr of the Chagos Conservation Trust.

And while most families have bedtime rituals to help their little ones ease into nighttime, many rely on strategies that may increase sleep challenges long term, according to the University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s Health.

Overall, one in four parents describe getting their young child to bed as difficult — and these parents are less likely to have a bedtime routine, more likely to leave on a video or TV show, and more likely to stay with their child until they’re asleep.

“Our report reinforces the common struggle of getting young children to sleep. When this transition to bedtime becomes a nightly conflict, some parents may fall into habits that work in the moment but could set them up for more sleep issues down the road,” said Mott Poll co-director Sarah Clark, M.P.H.

“Establishing a consistent bedtime routine is crucial. When children don’t get enough rest, it can impact their physical development, emotional regulation and behavior.”

Nearly one in five parents say they have given their kids melatonin to help with sleep while a third stay in the room until their child completely dozes off, according to the nationally representative poll that includes responses from 781 parents of children ages one to six surveyed in February.

Nighttime worries interfere with sleep

Parents share common reasons behind bedtime struggles, with nearly a quarter saying their child’s sleep is often or occasionally delayed due to being worried or anxious.

A particular challenge, parents say, is when children don’t stay asleep. More than a third of parents say their child wakes up upset or crying, with more than 40% saying their child moves to their parents’ bed and about 30% saying children insist that the parent sleep in their room.

“Many young children go through stages when they become scared of the dark or worry that something bad might happen, causing them to delay bedtime or become distressed by parents leaving the room. Bad dreams or being awakened in the middle of the night can also disrupt sleep,” Clark said.

“Although this is a normal part of a child’s development, it can be frustrating when parents already feel tired themselves at the end of the day. Parents should find a balance between offering reassurance and comfort while maintaining some boundaries that help ensure everyone — both kids and adults — get adequate sleep.”

More findings from the report, plus Clark’s recommendations for helping young children fall and stay asleep:

Stick to a regular bedtime routine

Most parents polled report having a bedtime routine for their child, often including brushing teeth, reading bedtime stories and/or bathing. Less than half also say their child has a drink of water or snack, turns off devices, prays and talks about their day.

Other bedtime habits include holding a blanket or stuff animal or sucking a pacifier or fingers.

Not only does having a consistent bedtime routine help make the nighttime transition smoother, Clark says, it also provides one-on-one time, allowing the child to get their parent’s full attention.

“A predictable bedtime routine provides a sense of security and comfort and signals to the child that it’s time to slow down,” she said.

“Knowing what to expect next can reduce anxiety and help children feel safe and relaxed. Having this dedicated time with parents also promotes bonding and emotional connection, creating positive associations with bedtime.”

Nearly two-thirds of parents also said children staying up to play was a major factor in delaying sleep. Clark says, highlighting the need to wind down at least an hour before bed.

Promote an environment conducive to sleep

A little less than half of parents polled say their child sleeps in their own bedroom while less than a quarter share a bedroom with siblings or in the parents’ bedroom. One in 10 kids spend part the night in their own bedroom and part of the night with parents.

More than two-fifths of parents polled said noise from other rooms interfered with their child’s sleep.

“The sleep environment can have a major effect on a child’s sleep quality, including getting to sleep and staying asleep through the night,” Clark said.

“When possible, children should have their own bed in a room that is quiet, without a lot of noise from other family members.”

Many parents polled also use a nightlight or crack the bedroom door so the child isn’t in complete darkness, Clark says, but parents should make sure the light does not shine directly at the child’s face.

Some parents also play calming music or stories to help their child go to sleep, while others use a white noise machine or app. However, Clark cautions to keep white noise machines at no more than 50 decibels and placed at least seven feet from the child’s bed to prevent unintended damage to the child’s hearing.

Talk to a doctor before using aids like melatonin

Many types of melatonin products are advertised as being appropriate for children but these products have not undergone rigorous testing for safety and effectiveness, and their side effects and long term impact on a child’s growth and development are unknown, Clark says.

“Although melatonin is a natural hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles and may be fine to use occasionally, parents shouldn’t rely on it as a primary sleep aid,” Clark said.

“Parents who are considering giving melatonin to their young child should consult with their pediatrician to discuss options and rule out other causes of sleep problems first.”

If using melatonin, parents should also start with the lowest dose possible.

In addition, it’s important to keep electronics such as tablets or televisions out of children’s bedroom, as the blue light emitted by many of these screens interferes with the natural production of melatonin.

Offer comfort but enforce boundaries

Parents can help ease little ones’ anxiety by allowing extra time to let them talk about their day, which might draw out specific worries and give parents a chance to provide compassion and reassurance, Clark said.

Rather than remaining in the room, parents can also offer to check on the child every few minutes, which acknowledges the child’s fears and offers a reassuring presence, but still maintains a calm sleep environment and promotes sleep independence.

“Families can incorporate comforting rituals to help transform nighttime fears into a calming experience,” Clark said.

Have a consistent approach when children wake up in the night

Some children are prone to vivid dreams or nightmares and may have difficulty getting back to sleep. Parents should decide on their approach to this situation and stick with it, Clark says, whether it’s taking the child back to bed or allowing them to stay in the parents’ room.

“Being consistent in carrying out that approach will help the child adjust and be more likely to return to sleep,” Clark said.

Ease into changes in sleep patterns, such as dropping naps

For young children, a major sleep-related transition is discontinuing daytime naps. In general, children ages one to two should get 11-14 hours of sleep with naps while the amount of recommended sleep decreases slightly from ages three to six.

If children are taking longer to fall asleep at nap time, resisting naps or suddenly having difficulty falling asleep at night or waking up earlier than usual in the morning, it may be time to drop the nap, Clark says.

“Parents may need to adjust sleep routines gradually to transition to changes to a child’s sleep patterns,” Clark said.

Other changes that can affect a child’s sleep include transitioning from a crib to a toddler bed, starting school, having a change in their daytime routine, or being outdoors for longer than usual.

The analysis of the content and use of prehistoric vessels has become a valuable source of information on the food patterns and subsistence practices of past societies. A research conducted on the materials found at the Huescan sites of Cueva de Chaves (Bastaràs), at 640 metres above sea level, and at Espluga de la Puyascada (La Fueva), at 1,300 metres above sea level, in a strictly Pyrenean mountain region, now has yielded the first direct evidence of dairy product consumption and processing in the Pyrenees during the earliest stages of the Neolithic.

The study was conducted by prehistorians from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) and the University of Zaragoza, and chemists from the University of Strasbourg, France, on materials on display at the Huesca Museum. The findings have now been published in the journal Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.

The research was conducted through a combination of techniques used to identify organic residues and the isotopic characterisation of fatty acids to determine animal origin, as well as data obtained of the morphology and functionality of ceramics and the archaeozoological studies of both sites.

The analysis of organic residues preserved in the argillaceous matrix of the interior of 36 ceramic vessels indicates that 7,500 years ago dairy products were already processed and consumed in the Central Pyrenees. The correlation between the residues of dairy fats and the different forms of the pottery suggests, moreover, that all the processes (preparation, consumption and storage) were carried out in both settlements.

This “questions previous considerations in which dairy consumption in the Pyrenees was thought to have begun much later,” points out Nàdia Tarifa, researcher from the University of Strasbourg when this study was conducted, and lead autor of the paper. “It was always thought that prehistoric social dynamics in mountainous regions were slower or ‘less evolved’ than in coastal regions. Our study adds solid proof to previous faunistic studies conducted in both sites, which had pointed to dairy farming in these mountainous regions at the very early stages of the Neolithic period,” Tarifa states.

The study also shows how pig-derived products may have been processed or stored in ceramic vessels at both sites, which would indicate the importance of this species for the early mountain farming economies. In contrast to the results for milk, researchers also observed variations between the two sites in terms of the exploitation of meat from ruminants and pigs, with a predominance of the former in Espluga de la Puyascada and the latter in Cueva de Chaves. These differences could be related to the characteristics of the settlements and their surroundings, and to the methods of meat processing.

The researchers also identified residues from processed vegetables, as well as from pine resin. The latter substance would have been used to waterproof the inside of the vessels.

The results support the idea that in the early Neolithic period in the Pyrenean area there was a mixed economy based on integrated agriculture and livestock farming (in which one supported the other), with sheep herds as the main source of meat and milk.

“Our findings provide a better understanding of consumption habits and the technological use of resources in the early Neolithic period in the Pyrenees and open up new avenues of research to deepen our understanding of the social and economic dynamics of ancient societies, especially in mountainous areas,” says Alejandro Sierra, researcher at the UAB and co-author of the study.