The findings could eventually help farmers better detect, monitor and control fall armyworm populations, which negatively affect some 350 plant species — including crops like corn and cotton as well as turfgrass and other cultivated grasses.

“Nonanal is emitted by people, birds and even apples,” said Coby Schal, Blanton J. Whitmire Distinguished Professor of Entomology and co-corresponding author of a paper describing the research. “It is a universal attractant that, by itself, doesn’t have much of an effect. But when a certain percentage of nonanal is added to the multi-chemical attractant mixture discovered nearly 40 years ago, it has a highly stimulatory effect — in this case attracting male fall armyworm moths in the lab and then attracting male moths to traps in field experiments.”

Fall armyworms are found mostly in warmer climates; after originating in South America they spread to North America and then to sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, China, and, most recently, Australia. Arguably one of the world’s most devastating pests, fall armyworm caterpillars can rapidly chew through crops and lawns.

The researchers started examining ways to attract and then trap male moths as part of a “mating disruption” strategy.

“When you see fall armyworm moths you know that — two weeks later — you’re going to have caterpillars,” Schal said. “So controlling the early flying adults is key. Mating disruption is the way to go when using pheromones, as males will find traps rather than females. Pests have been eliminated from wide areas using several approaches including mating disruption — like pink bollworm, a major cotton pest in the Southwest.” Other uses of the pheromone include detection of the fall armyworm in areas not yet invaded by this pest and lure-and-kill, where the pheromone attracts the fall armyworm to an insecticide or a pathogen.

The researchers used gas chromatography, in which chemical compounds are separated in a controllable oven, to test whether the fall armyworm males would respond to other chemicals besides the known blend of chemicals. By connecting this instrument to the antennae of fall armyworm males and monitoring their electrical activity, the researchers saw that nonanal stimulated male fall armyworms.

The researchers then tested the blend with nonanal in other lab tests. Males were somewhat attracted to the traditional pheromone blend, but adding the “right amount” of nonanal to the blend greatly increased the response. The right amount turned out to be about 1% percent of the total blend, as adding too little nonanal increased the response over the traditional blend, but not by much.

Finally, the researchers used bait-and-trap experiments on NC State cotton and sorghum research fields in Raleigh and Clayton, where they tried to use different pheromone blends to capture male moths. There, they showed that nonanal by itself had no effect on males. Higher doses of nonanal in the traditional blend — at 2% and 4% concentrations — reduced the compound’s effectiveness. Again, 1% nonanal in the blend emerged as the most effective, capturing more males.

Interestingly, the shape of the trapping device also affected the success rates in capturing males. Cone-shaped traps did not perform as well as bucket-shaped traps.

The field studies also showed few other insect species — or female fall armyworms — trapped.

“We have tweaked this system to make it highly species-specific, which is especially important in places where similar moth species live,” Schal said.

The researchers filed a patent on the discovery and have exclusive licensing agreements with industry partners that will further test nonanal’s effectiveness when added to the traditional pheromone blend.

The study appears in Pest Management Science. Ahmed M. Saveer, Eduardo Hatano and Ayako Wada-Katsumata from NC State co-authored the paper, as did Robert L. Meagher from the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service. Funding was provided by a N.C. Biotechnology Center Flash Grant (2020-FLG-3809), by the USDA Southern IPM Center (2021-1645), by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF IOS1456973) and by the Blanton J. Whitmire Endowment at NC State.

Unlike ancient philosophers imagining the universe’s origins, modern cosmologists use quantitative tools to gain insights into the universe’s evolution and structure. Modern cosmology dates back to the early 20th century, with the development of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

Now, researchers from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) collaboration have created a groundbreaking new image that reveals the most detailed map of dark matter distributed across a quarter of the entire sky, extending deep into the cosmos. What’s more, it confirms Einstein’s theory of how massive structures grow and bend light, over the entire 14-billion-year life span of the universe.

“We have mapped the invisible dark matter across the sky to the largest distances, and clearly see features of this invisible world that are hundreds of millions of light-years across, says Blake Sherwin, professor of cosmology at the University of Cambridge, where he leads a group of ACT researchers. “It looks just as our theories predict.”

Despite making up 85% of the universe and influencing its evolution, dark matter has been hard to detect because it doesn’t interact with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. As far as we know dark matter only interacts with gravity.

To track it down, the more than 160 collaborators who have built and gathered data from the National Science Foundation’s Atacama Cosmology Telescope in the high Chilean Andes observe light emanating following the dawn of the universe’s formation, the Big Bang — when the universe was only 380,000 years old. Cosmologists often refer to this diffuse light that fills our entire universe as the “baby picture of the universe,” but formally, it is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).

The team tracks how the gravitational pull of large, heavy structures including dark matter warps the CMB on its 14-billion-year journey to us, like how a magnifying glass bends light as it passes through its lens.

“We’ve made a new mass map using distortions of light left over from the Big Bang,” says Mathew Madhavacheril, assistant professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Pennsylvania. “Remarkably, it provides measurements that show that both the ‘lumpiness’ of the universe, and the rate at which it is growing after 14 billion years of evolution, are just what you’d expect from our standard model of cosmology based on Einstein’s theory of gravity.”

Sherwin adds, “our results also provide new insights into an ongoing debate some have called ‘The Crisis in Cosmology,'”explaining that this crisis stems from recent measurements that use a different background light, one emitted from stars in galaxies rather than the CMB. These have produced results that suggest the dark matter was not lumpy enough under the standard model of cosmology and led to concerns that the model may be broken. However, the team’s latest results from ACT were able to precisely assess that the vast lumps seen in this image are the exact right size.

“When I first saw them, our measurements were in such good agreement with the underlying theory that it took me a moment to process the results,” says Cambridge Ph.D. student Frank Qu, part of the research team. “It will be interesting to see how this possible discrepancy between different measurements will be resolved.”

“The CMB lensing data rivals more conventional surveys of the visible light from galaxies in their ability to trace the sum of what is out there,” says Suzanne Staggs, director of ACT and Henry DeWolf Smyth Professor of Physics at Princeton University. “Together, the CMB lensing and the best optical surveys are clarifying the evolution of all the mass in the universe.”

“When we proposed this experiment in 2003, we had no idea the full extent of information that could be extracted from our telescope,” says Mark Devlin, the Reese Flower Professor of Astronomy at the University of Pennsylvania and the deputy director of ACT. “We owe this to the cleverness of the theorists, the many people who built new instruments to make our telescope more sensitive, and the new analysis techniques our team came up with.”

ACT, which operated for 15 years, was decommissioned in September 2022. Nevertheless, more papers presenting results from the final set of observations are expected to be submitted soon, and the Simons Observatory will conduct future observations at the same site, with a new telescope slated to begin operations in 2024. This new instrument will be capable of mapping the sky almost 10 times faster than ACT.

The experiment’s final report was published in Physical Review Letters in February.

Neutrinos — subatomic particles similar to an electron but that have no electric charge — are the second most abundant particles in the universe after light. However, they are some of the hardest particles to measure because they do not interact the way other particles do.

“Neutrinos have a profound impact on the universe and physics at every imaginable scale, surprising us down at the particle interaction level and having broad impact up through the cosmic scales,” said Walter Pettus, an assistant professor of physics in the IU College of Arts and Sciences. “But they are also the most frustrating to study because we know so much about them, yet we have so many gaps.”

The Majorana Demonstrator, a collaboration of 60 researchers from 24 institutions, was designed to fill many of those gaps at the same time, probing into the most fundamental properties of neutrinos.

One aspect they hoped to observe was whether the neutrino could be its own antiparticle — a subatomic particle of the same mass but with the opposite electric charge. Since the neutrino is uncharged, it is the only particle in the universe that could be its own antiparticle. Understanding that would provide insight into why the neutrino has mass in the first place — information which would have wide-spread impacts in understanding how the universe was formed.

To determine if the neutrino is its own antiparticle, the researchers needed to observe a rare occurrence called neutrinoless double-beta decay. However, this process takes a single atom at least 10²⁶ years — significantly longer than the age of the universe. Instead, they chose to observe nearly 10²⁶ atoms over the course of six years.

To observe this incredibly rare decay, the researchers needed the perfect environment. In the Sanford Underground Research Facility in the Black Hills of South Dakota, located a mile underground, they built one of the cleanest and quietest environments on Earth. Extremely sensitive detectors were made of a high-purity germanium and were packed in a 50-ton lead shield and surrounded by materials of unprecedented cleanliness. Even the copper used was grown underground in their lab with impurity levels so low they couldn’t be measured.

Pettus and a team of IU students were responsible primarily for analyzing data from the experiment. Graduate student Nafis Fuad, undergraduate senior Isaac Baker, sophomore Abby Kickbush and Jennifer James, a student with the Research Experiences for Undergraduates Program, have been involved in the project. Their focus has been on understanding the stability of the experiment, analyzing details of the recorded waveforms and characterizing backgrounds.

“It’s like looking for a tiny needle in a very, very, very big haystack — you have to carefully get rid of all the hays (a.k.a. backgrounds) possible, and you don’t even know if there’s actually a needle in there in the first place or not,” Fuad said. “It’s very exciting to be a part of that search.”

While the researchers ultimately did not observe the decay they hoped for, they did discover that the neutrino’s scale for decay is longer than the limit they placed on it, which they will test further during the next phase of the experiment. In addition, they recorded other scientific results — ranging from dark matter to quantum mechanics — that helps provide a better understanding of the universe.

Through the project, the researchers proved that the techniques they utilized could be used at a much larger scale in a potentially game-changing search that could help explain the existence of matter in the universe.

“We didn’t see the decay we were looking for, but we have raised the bar on where to look for the physics we’re going after,” Pettus said. “True to its name, the Demonstrator advanced critical technologies that we are already leveraging for the next phase of the experiment in Italy. We may not have broken our picture of physics yet, but we’ve certainly pushed the horizons, and I am very excited about what we have accomplished.”

The next phase of the project, called LEGEND-200, has already begun taking data in Italy, with plans to run over the next five years. Researchers aim to observe the decay happening at a magnitude higher sensitivity than the Majorana Demonstrator. Beyond that, thanks to support from the U.S. Department of Energy, the team is already designing the successor experiment, LEGEND-1000.

Pettus is excited about the future of this work and looks forward to involving more students on the project, both in data analysis and hardware development for LEGEND-1000.

“If we discover the neutrino is its own antiparticle, there will still be ground under our feet and stars in the sky, and our understanding of physics doesn’t change the reality of the physical laws that always have and continue to govern our universe,” Pettus said. “But knowing what’s down there at the most fundamental level and how the universe works gives us a richer, more beautiful world to live in — or possibly just weirder — and that pursuit is fundamentally human.”

The Majorana Demonstrator was managed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Physics, with support from the National Science Foundation.

Researchers charted how developmental processes unfold across the human brain from the ages of 8 to 23 years old through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The findings indicate a new approach to understanding the order in which individual brain regions show reductions in plasticity during development.

Brain plasticity refers to the capacity for neural circuits — connections and pathways in the brain for thought, emotion, and movement — to change or reorganize in response to internal biological signals or the external environment. While it is generally understood that children have higher brain plasticity than adults, this study provides new insights into where and when reductions in plasticity occur in the brain throughout childhood and adolescence.

The findings reveal that reductions in brain plasticity occur earliest in “sensory-motor” regions, such as visual and auditory regions, and occur later in “associative” regions, such as those involved in higher-order thinking (problem solving and social learning). As a result, brain regions that support executive, social, and emotional functions appear to be particularly malleable and responsive to the environment during early adolescence, as plasticity occurs later in development.

“Studying brain development in the living human brain is challenging. A lot of neuroscientists’ understanding about brain plasticity during development actually comes from studies conducted with rodents. But rodent brains do not have many of what we refer to as the association regions of the human brain, so we know less about how these important areas develop,” said corresponding author Theodore D. Satterthwaite, MD, the McLure Associate Professor of Psychiatry in the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, and director of the Penn Lifespan Informatics and Neuroimaging Center (PennLINC).

To address this challenge, the researchers focused on comparing insights from previous rodent studies to youth MRI imaging insights. Prior research examining how neural circuits behave when they are plastic uncovered that brain plasticity is linked to a unique pattern of “intrinsic” brain activity. Intrinsic activity is the neural activity occurring in a part of the brain when it is at rest, or not being engaged by external stimuli or a mental task. When a brain region is less developed and more plastic, there tends to be more intrinsic activity within the region, and that activity also tends to be more synchronized. This is because more neurons in the region are active, and they tend to be active at the same time. As a result, measurements of brain activity waves show an increase in amplitude(or height).

“Imagine that individual neurons within a region of the brain are like instruments in an orchestra. As more instruments begin to play together in synchrony, the sound level of the orchestra increases, and the amplitude of the sound wave gets higher,” said first author Valerie Sydnor,a Neuroscience PhD student. “Just like decibel meters can measure the amplitude of a sound wave, the amplitude of intrinsic brain activity can be measured with functional MRI while kids are simply resting in the scanner. This allowed our team to study a functional marker of brain plasticity safely and non-invasively in youth.”

Analyzing MRI scans from more than 1,000 individuals, the authors found that the functional marker of brain plasticity declined in earlier childhood in sensory-motor regions but did not decline until mid-adolescence in associative regions.

“These slow-developing associative regions are also those that are vital for children’s cognitive attainment, social interactions, and emotional well-being,” Satterthwaite added. “We are really starting to understand the uniqueness of human’s prolonged developmental program.”

“If a brain region remains malleable for longer, it may also remain sensitive to environmental influences for a longer window of development,” Sydnor said. “This study found evidence for just that.”

The authors studied relationships between youths’ socioeconomic environments and the same functional marker of plasticity. They found that the effects of the environment on the brain were not uniform across regions nor static across development. Rather, the effects of the environment on the brain changed as the identified developmental sequence progressed.

Critically, youths’ socioeconomic environments generally had a larger impact on brain development in the late-maturing associative brain regions, and the impact was found to be largest in adolescence.

“This work lays the foundation for understanding how the environment shapes neurodevelopmental trajectories even through the teenage years,” said Bart Larsen, PhD, a PennLINC postdoctoral researcher and co-author.

Sydnor elaborated, “The hope is that studying developmental plasticity will help us to understand when environmental enrichment programs will have a beneficial impact on each child’s neurodevelopmental trajectory. Our findings support that programs designed to alleviate disparities in youths’ socioeconomic environments remain important for brain development throughout the adolescent period.”

This study was supported by the National Institute of Health (R01MH113550, R01MH120482, R01MH112847, R01MH119219, R01MH123563, R01MH119185, R01MH120174, R01NS060910, R01EB022573, RF1MH116920., RF1MH121867, R37MH125829, R34DA050297, K08MH120564, K99MH127293, T32MH014654). The study was also supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (DGE-1845298).

Additional support was provided by the Penn-CHOP Lifespan Brain Institute and the Penn Center for Biomedical Image Computing and Analytics.