The lead author of the report says their analysis shows animals were very likely poisoned by watering holes where toxic blooms of blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, had developed after a very wet year followed a very dry one.

Davide Lomeo, a PhD student in the Department of Geography at King’s College London and co-supervised by Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML) and the Natural History Museum, said: “Botswana is home to a third of all African elephants, and this unprecedented die-off within their largest remaining population underlines the escalating concerns surrounding the impact of drought and climate change on the Okavango Delta, one of the most important ecosystems in the world.”

Elephant carcasses were first spotted in the north-eastern sector of the country’s Okavango Delta between May and June 2020, but poaching was soon ruled out as the cause.

The event sparked global concern, with a total of 350 elephants now known to have died.

Toxins produced by the algae growing in watering holes was one suspected cause, though evidence has remained inconclusive, in part because it occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic when movements were restricted, and this prevented the collection of samples at the time.

The deaths of 25 elephants in neighbouring Zimbabwe from septicaemia in the same year cast some doubt on algal toxins being the reason for the Botswana deaths.

However, writing in the journal Science of The Total Environment, the team say their analysis all but confirms toxic algae as the cause.

Combining satellite data and spatial analysis, the team examined the relationship between about 3000 waterholes and the locations of deceased elephants.

Their analysis revealed waterholes near the carcasses showed elevated algal levels and repeated bloom events in 2020 compared to previous years — particularly during the period associated with the mass mortality event

The team also showed that decayed elephant carcasses were more spread out across the landscape than fresh carcasses, indicating that the die-off in 2020 was different from typical elephant mortality patterns.

“We identified 20 waterholes near fresh carcasses that experienced increased algal bloom events in 2020 compared to the previous three years combined. These waterholes also exhibited the highest average algal biomass of the period 2015 — 2023,” said Davide.

After drinking, elephants were estimated to have walked an average of 16.5 km from the toxic waterholes and died within about 88 hours of exposure.

These findings suggest a heightened risk and likelihood of the presence algal toxins in these waterholes, he added.

The team thinks that the shift from a very dry 2019 — the driest year in decades in the region — to an extremely wet 2020, may have led to a resuspension of significant amounts of sediments and nutrients from the ground, promoting the unprecedented algal growth.

Davide said: “Southern Africa is projected to become drier and hotter under climate changes, and as a result waterholes across this region will likely be drier for more months of the year. Our findings point to the potential negative effects on water quantity and quality, and the catastrophic repercussions on animals, this could have.

“This work, conducted in collaboration with the local authorities, underscores the severe ecological consequences of toxic algal proliferation, emphasising the critical need for comprehensive water quality surveillance across all waterbodies, including the smallest ones. The research demonstrates the effectiveness of satellite-based detection in identifying diverse sources of contamination, reinforcing the importance of expanding Earth observation applications to enable swift intervention when similar environmental threats emerge.”

The research also involved colleagues from the University of Botswana, the Natural History Museum, London, Queen’s University Belfast, and the Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML).

Escherichia coli is a common bacterium which is often harmless but can cause serious infections. The researchers exposed E. coli to streptomycin and kasugamycin, two drugs which treat bacterial infections. Streptomycin has been a staple in treating tuberculosis and other infections since the 1940s, while kasugamycin is less known but crucial in agricultural settings to prevent bacterial diseases in crops.

Both antibiotics tamper with bacteria’s ability to make new proteins by specifically targeting their ribosomes. These molecular structures create proteins and are themselves made of proteins and ribosomal RNA. Ribosomal RNA is often modified with chemical tags that can alter the shape and function of the ribosome. Cells use these tags to fine tune protein production.

The study found that, in response to the antibiotics, E. coli begins to assemble new ribosomes that are slightly different from the ones produced under normal conditions. Depending on which antibiotic used, the new ribosomes lacked certain tags. The tags were specifically lost in the regions where antibiotics latch on to and halt protein production. The study found this made the bacteria more resistant to the drugs.

“We think the bacteria’s ribosomes might be altering its structure just enough to prevent an antibiotic from binding effectively,” says Anna Delgado-Tejedor, first author of the study and PhD student at the Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG) in Barcelona.

Bacteria are known to develop antibiotic resistance in different ways, including mutations in their DNA. Another common mechanism is their ability to actively pump and transport antibiotics out of the cell, reducing the concentration of the drug inside the cell to levels that are no longer harmful.

The study is evidence of an entirely new survival strategy. “E. coli is altering its molecular structures with remarkable precision and in real time. It’s a stealthy and subtle way of dodging drugs,” says Dr. Eva Novoa, corresponding author of the study and researcher at the CRG.

The researchers made the findings using advanced nanopore sequencing technology, which read RNA molecules directly. Previous techniques would process RNA molecules in such a way that it would remove the chemical modifications. “Our approach has allowed us to see the modifications as they are, in their natural context,” says Dr. Novoa.

The study does not explore why or how the chemical modifications are lost in the first place. Further research could explore the underlying biology of the adaptive mechanism and uncover new ways to combat one of the biggest looming crises in global health. Global antimicrobial resistance has claimed at least one million lives each year since 1990 and is forecast to claim 39 million more lives between now and 2050.

“If we can delve deeper and understand why they are shedding these modifications, we can create new strategies that prevent bacteria from shedding them in the first place or make new drugs that more effectively bind to the altered ribosomes,” says Dr. Novoa.

Experts have devised a blueprint to ensure safe, equitable and sustainable global access to clean water. The seven-point strategy will allow water challenges to be governed effectively so they do not create conflict when access is restricted or usage unfairly shared.

Publishing their findings in Nature Water today (29 Nov), the international team of interdisciplinary experts from France, Germany, India, Nigeria, Sweden, the USA, and the UK — led by the University of Birmingham — set out the following seven strategies to help achieve peace and security:

• Collaborate locally on global water challenges to help reduce conflict, empower civil societies, and build resilience. Inadequate water governance can lead to unjust competition and severe impacts on vulnerable communities.

• Involve communities in developing water governance can prevent conflicts during times of scarcity — joint risk assessments, improved public communication, and citizen science help to foster transparency and build trust.

• Consider existing inequalities when developing national and local policies to help prevent conflict and build trust — like successful water cooperation initiatives, such as the EcoPeace project in the Middle East, nominated for the 2024 Nobel Peace Prize.

• Ensure safe water access for women and girls, who often bear the responsibility for water collection. Integrating safety, gender equity, and access into water governance policies is critical in protecting and empowering female citizens.

• Prevent conflict through international treaties and intergovernmental management of transboundary river basins — for example, the Indus Waters Treaty between Pakistan and India, and Peru and Bolivia’s joint governance of Lake Titicaca.

Lead author Professor Stefan Krause, from the University of Birmingham, co-chair of the UNESCO UniTwin network on Ecohydrological Interfaces, commented: “Water can be a powerful tool for peace when managed sustainably and equitably, but there is increasing conflict for water as an irreplaceable resource for humans and waterbodies as highly valuable ecosystems with a rich biodiversity.

“Our study provides a blueprint for using water to foster cooperation and prevent conflicts, ensuring a more just and resilient future for all. Co-creating shared visions for water solutions ensures fairness and acceptance of management decisions.”

The researchers emphasise the importance of initiatives like the UN Water Convention in preventing conflicts and promoting joint water management. They note the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) ‘HELPING’ initiative focuses on local engagement, interdisciplinary collaboration, and innovative methods to find solutions for water-related issues.

Co-author Professor David Hannah, Director of the Birmingham Institute for Sustainability and Climate Action (BISCA), and UNESCO Chair in Water Science commented: “The seven recommendations we highlight provide pathways to move from water crisis to sustainable solutions, balancing water as a resource for people and as a valuable ecosystem.

“Considering factors such as community action, indigenous knowledge, open science, and participatory approaches for sustainable water governance will help the world to achieve UN sustainable development goals and leverage water for peace.”

The starlet sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis) possesses remarkable regenerative abilities. Cut off its head or foot, and it simply grows a new one. Slice it in half, and each piece becomes a complete, fully functional anemone.

While some regenerating animals like salamanders and fish focus on restoring lost parts in proportion to what remains, this sea anemone takes a different approach. It reshapes its entire body to maintain the same overall form, even if that means adjusting parts that weren’t injured. This feature is also seen in flatworms and other animals with whole-body regenerative capabilities.

“Regeneration is about restoring function after tissue loss or damage,” explained Aissam Ikmi, EMBL Group Leader and senior author of a new study in the journal Developmental Cell. “Most research studies mainly consider patterns and sizes in regeneration, but our findings show that maintaining shape is also crucial — and it’s something the organism actively controls.”

The discovery began when Stephanie Cheung, a doctoral researcher in Ikmi’s group, noticed something unusual. When a sea anemone’s foot was injured, Cheung observed not only cell division at the wound site but also unexpected cell division at the opposite end of the body — the mouth area. This suggested the anemone was sending signals across its entire body in response to the injury.

To investigate this, the research team used a technique called spatial transcriptomics combined with advanced imaging. This allowed them to see which genes were active in different parts of the anemone’s body during regeneration. What they found was surprising: the injury triggered molecular changes both near and far from the wound. Cells moved and tissues reorganised, effectively reshaping the entire body.

Interestingly, the extent of the body reshaping depended on the injury’s severity. Losing a foot caused mild changes, while the anemone being cut in half led to significant remodelling. The team identified a family of enzymes called metalloproteases that became more active as more tissue was lost. These enzymes weren’t just working at the wound site; they were active throughout the body, helping to realign tissues.

“Metalloprotease activity has never been shown before in animals like this,” said Petrus Steenbergen, one of the study’s lead authors and an Ikmi Group Senior Research Technician. “I had to design and optimise experimental conditions for Nematostella based on the sparse literature available from other species. This took some time, but the final results were very rewarding.”

The breakthrough came when the researchers realised that all these changes aimed to restore the anemone’s original shape. By measuring the aspect ratio — the ratio of length to width — they found that the anemone returned to its pre-injury proportions. So, even if the anemone became smaller after an injury, it maintained the same shape.

“We were able to witness the body-wide coordination that drives this remodelling,” Ikmi explained. “This proportional response allows the anemone to restore its shape, highlighting how organisms like Nematostella interpret and respond to tissue loss in a way that’s scaled to the damage incurred.”

This research was a collaborative effort. Rik Korswagen’s team at the Hubrecht Institute in the Netherlands helped implement spatial transcriptomics in the sea anemone. Oliver Stegle’s team at EMBL Heidelberg and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) contributed bioinformatics expertise and the statistical methods needed to deal with the spatial gene expression data.

“It was a pleasure to puzzle out the findings of the study together by uniting the team’s expertise in data analysis and cell biology,” said Tobias Gerber, another of the study’s lead authors. “This work was a truly collaborative journey, and I am glad I was part of it.”

Looking ahead, Ikmi and his team are excited to explore new questions. “The next big question is why maintaining shape is so important,” Ikmi said. “And how does the organism sense its own shape? How does it know what it currently looks like?”

With the remarkable starlet sea anemone as their model, they’re eager to uncover more secrets about how organisms heal and maintain balance.