In continental rifting, there’s a mix of stretching and breaking that reaches deep into the Earth, said geophysicist D. Sarah Stamps. Continental rifting involves the stretching of the lithosphere — the outermost, rigid layer of the Earth. As the lithosphere stretches thin, its shallow regions experience brittle deformation, with the breaking of rock and earthquakes.

Stamps, who studies these processes by using computer modeling and GPS to map surface motions with millimeter precision, compares a rifting continent’s different deformation styles with playing with Silly Putty.

“If you hit Silly Putty with a hammer, it can actually crack and break,” said Stamps, associate professor in the Department of Geosciences, part of the Virginia Tech College of Science. “But if you slowly pull it apart, the Silly Putty stretches. So on different time scales, Earth’s lithosphere behaves in different ways.”

Whether in stretching or breaking, the deformation that comes with continental rifting usually follows predictable directional patterns in relation to the rift: The deformation tends to be perpendicular to the rift. The East African Rift System, the Earth’s largest continental rift system, has those rift-perpendicular deformations. But after measuring the rift system with GPS instruments for more than 12 years, Stamps also observed deformation that went in the opposite direction, parallel to the system’s rifts. Her team at the Geodesy and Tectonophysics Labhas worked to find out why.

In a recent study published in theJournal of Geophysical Research, the team explored the processes behind the East African Rift System using 3D thermomechanical modeling developed by the study’s first author, Tahiry Rajaonarison, a postdoctoral researcher at New Mexico Tech who earned his Ph.D. at Virginia Tech as a member of Stamps’s lab. His models showed that the rift system’s unusual, rift-parallel deformation is driven by northward mantle flow associated with the African Superplume, a massive upwelling of mantle that rises from deep within the Earth beneath southwest Africa and goes northeast across the continent, becoming more shallow as it extends northward.

Their findings, combined with insights from a study the researchers published in 2021 using Rajaonarison’s modeling techniques, could help clear up scientific debate on which plate-driving forces dominate the East African Rift System, accounting for both its rift-perpendicular and rift-parallel deformation: lithospheric buoyancy forces, mantle traction forces, or both.

As a postdoctoral researcher, Stamps began observing the East African Rift System’s unusual, rift-parallel deformation using data from GPS stations that measured signals from more than 30 satellites orbiting Earth, from about 25,000 kilometers away. Her observations have added a layer of complexity to the debate around what drives the rift system.

Some scientists see the rifting in East Africa as driven primarily by lithospheric buoyancy forces, which are relatively shallow forces attributed mainly to the rift system’s high topography, known as the African Superswell, and to density variations in the lithosphere. Others point to horizontal mantle traction forces, the deeper forces arising from interactions with mantle flowing horizontally beneath East Africa, as the primary driver.

The team’s 2021 study found through 3D computational simulations that the rift and its deformation could be driven by a combination of the two forces. Their models showed that lithospheric buoyancy forces were responsible for the more predictable, rift-perpendicular deformation, but those forces couldn’t account for the anomalous, rift-parallel deformation picked up by Stamps’s GPS measurements.

In their newly published study, Rajaonarison again used 3D thermomechanical modeling, this time to focus on the source of the rift-parallel deformations. His models confirm that the African Superplume is responsible for the unusual deformations as well as rift-parallel seismic anisotropy observed beneath the East African Rift System.

Seismic anisotropy is the orientation or alignment of rocks in a particular direction in response to mantle flow, melt pockets, or pre-existing structural fabrics in the lithosphere, Stamps said. In this case, the rocks’ alignment followed the direction of the African Superplume’s northward mantle flow, which suggests mantle flow as their source.

“We are saying that the mantle flow is not driving the east-west, rift-perpendicular direction of some of the deformations, but that it may be causing the anomalous northward deformation parallel to the rift,” Rajaonarison said. “We confirmed previous ideas that lithospheric buoyancy forces are driving the rift, but we’re bringing new insight that anomalous deformation can happen in East Africa.”

Learning more about the processes involved in continental rifting, including these anomalous ones, will help scientists chip away at the complexity behind the breaking of a continent, which they’ve been attempting for decades. “We’re excited about this result from Dr. Rajaonarison’s numerical modeling because it provides new information about the complex processes that shape the Earth’s surface through continental rifting,” Stamps said.

Sea turtles play a vital role in the marine ecosystem, and for these oceangoing reptiles to thrive, they need healthy beaches where their eggs can incubate successfully.

“Sea turtle sex, fitness and hatchling success is influenced by temperature,” said lead author Mariana Fuentes, an associate professor in FSU’s Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science. “Not much is known on how the presence of microplastic affects the thermal profile of sand. Understanding how changes to the environment could affect the temperature of nesting grounds is important for monitoring the future of these keystone species.”

Researchers mixed sand from beaches at the FSU Coastal and Marine Laboratory with black and white microplastic. Concentrations of microplastic ranged from 5% to 30% of the total volume of the sediment sample. Then they recorded temperatures from July through September 2018 by burying digital thermometers at the same depth at which loggerhead sea turtles typically lay their eggs.

They found that samples with higher microplastic concentrations had greater increases in temperature, with the sample containing 30% black microplastic pieces having the highest mean difference in temperature. Those samples were 0.58 degrees Celsius warmer than the control group, an increase that could potentially significantly alter sea turtle hatchling sex ratios, physiological performance, and mortality of embryos.

The good news from the study is that the 30% concentration of microplastics in those samples equates to about 9.8 million pieces per cubic meter, a higher concentration than has been currently found on beaches worldwide. Current research has found the highest reported concentrations collected from beaches is about 1.8 million pieces per cubic meter.

But the amount of microplastics at nesting sites has only recently been explored. It could be higher in locations that haven’t been studied yet, and demand for plastic is forecast to increase in the future.

At nesting grounds where incubating eggs are near a 29-degree Celsius boundary — below which most hatchlings are male, and above which most hatchlings are female — smaller concentrations of plastic could be enough to push the temperature beyond a crucial threshold.

“Sea turtle eggs are sensitive to temperature, and microplastics are another factor adding to the heat they face,” Fuentes said. “This study gives us a baseline for future research on how they are affecting the nesting environment.”

The research was supported by FSU’s Garnet and Gold Scholar Society. Researchers with the University of Florida and the University of North Carolina Wilmington were co-authors on this study.

Inhaled microplastics can pose serious health risks, so understanding how they travel in the respiratory system is essential for prevention and treatment of respiratory diseases. In Physics of Fluids, by AIP Publishing, researchers from the University of Technology Sydney, Western Sydney University, Urmia University, Islamic Azad University, the University of Comilla, and Queensland University of Technology developed a computational fluid dynamics model to analyze microplastic transport and deposition in the upper airway.

“Millions of tons of these microplastic particles have been found in water, air, and soil. Global microplastic production is surging, and the density of microplastics in the air is increasing significantly,” said author Mohammad S. Islam. “For the first time, in 2022, studies found microplastics deep in human airways, which raises the concern of serious respiratory health hazards.”

The team explored the movement of microplastics with different shapes (spherical, tetrahedral, and cylindrical) and sizes (1.6, 2.56, and 5.56 microns) and under slow and fast breathing conditions.

Microplastics tended to collect in hot spots in the nasal cavity and oropharynx, or back of the throat.

“The complicated and highly asymmetric anatomical shape of the airway and complex flow behavior in the nasal cavity and oropharynx causes the microplastics to deviate from the flow pathline and deposit in those areas,” said Islam. “The flow speed, particle inertia, and asymmetric anatomy influence the overall deposition and increase the deposition concentration in nasal cavities and the oropharynx area.”

Breathing conditions and microplastic size influenced the overall microplastic deposition rate in airways. An increased flow rate led to less deposition, and the largest (5.56 micron) microplastics were deposited in the airways more often than their smaller counterparts.

The authors believe their study highlights the real concern of exposure to and inhalation of microplastics, particularly in areas with high levels of plastic pollution or industrial activity. They hope the results can help inform targeted drug delivery devices and improve health risk assessment.

“This study emphasizes the need for greater awareness of the presence and potential health impacts of microplastics in the air we breathe,” said author YuanTong Gu.

In the future, the researchers plan to analyze microplastic transport in a large scale, patient-specific whole lung model that includes environmental parameters such as humidity and temperature.