Research led by Colorado State University Ph.D. student Robert J. Madden shows that dice, gambling, and games of chance have deep roots in Native American culture, stretching back at least 12,000 years. The earliest examples come from Late Pleistocene Folsom-period sites in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. These artifacts are more than 6,000 years older than comparable dice found in the Old World.

“Historians have traditionally treated dice and probability as Old World innovations,” Madden said. “What the archaeological record shows is that ancient Native American groups were deliberately making objects designed to produce random outcomes, and using those outcomes in structured games, thousands of years earlier than previously recognized.”

What Ice Age Dice Looked Like

The oldest specimens identified in the study date to roughly 12,800-12,200 years ago. Unlike modern six-sided dice, these objects were two-sided pieces known as “binary lots.” They were carefully shaped from bone into small, handheld forms that were flat or slightly rounded, often oval or rectangular, and designed to be tossed together onto a surface.

Each piece had two distinct faces, marked by differences in color, texture, or added designs, similar to heads and tails on a coin. One side served as the “counting” face. When thrown, each piece would land showing one side or the other, producing a binary (two-outcome) result. Players cast multiple pieces at once, and the outcome depended on how many landed with the counting face up.

“They’re simple, elegant tools,” Madden said. “But they’re also unmistakably purposeful. These are not casual byproducts of bone working. They were made to generate random outcomes.”

A New Method to Identify Ancient Dice

To move beyond guesswork, the study introduces an attribute-based morphological test, a structured checklist of physical characteristics used to identify dice in archaeological collections. This method is based on a comparative analysis of 293 sets of historic Native American dice recorded by ethnographer Stewart Culin in his 1907 Bureau of American Ethnology monograph, Games of the North American Indians.

Using this framework, the study revisits artifacts that had previously been labeled as possible “gaming pieces” or ignored entirely. By applying consistent criteria, Madden was able to determine whether these objects fit the definition of dice.

In many cases, the items had been known for decades but were never evaluated within a broader pattern. With this new approach, the study identifies more than 600 diagnostic and probable dice from sites covering every major period of North American prehistory, from the Late Pleistocene through and after European contact.

“In most cases, these objects had already been excavated and published,” Madden said. “What was missing wasn’t the evidence, it was a clear, continent-wide standard for recognizing what we were looking at.”

The earliest examples were also examined directly in museum collections at the Smithsonian Institution, the University of Wyoming Archaeological Repository, and the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.

Rethinking the Origins of Probability

Dice games are often considered humanity’s earliest structured interaction with randomness, laying the groundwork for probability theory, statistics, and scientific reasoning. Until now, scholars believed these practices originated in complex Old World societies around 5,500 years ago.

The new findings point to a much earlier and more widespread origin.

“These findings don’t claim that Ice Age hunter-gatherers were doing formal probability theory,” Madden said. “But they were intentionally creating, observing, and relying on random outcomes in repeatable, rule-based ways that leveraged probabilistic regularities, such as the law of large numbers. That matters for how we understand the global history of probabilistic thinking.”

A Long-Lasting Cultural Tradition

The research also highlights how widespread and enduring dice games have been in Native American cultures. Evidence of dice appears at 57 archaeological sites across a 12-state region, spanning Paleoindian, Archaic, and Late Prehistoric periods, and reflecting a wide range of cultural traditions and lifestyles.

Madden suggests that this long history points to the important social role of games of chance. “Games of chance and gambling created neutral, rule-governed spaces for ancient Native Americans,” he said. “They allowed people from different groups to interact, exchange goods and information, form alliances, and manage uncertainty. In that sense, they functioned as powerful social technologies.”

About the Study

The article, “Probability in the Pleistocene: Origins and Antiquity of Native American Dice, Games of Chance, and Gambling,” will appear in American Antiquity, published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for American Archaeology.

Colorectal cancer is the fourth most common cancer in the UK and the second leading cause of cancer-related death. The new findings may help clinicians better understand how the disease develops, how aggressive it may become, and how patients might respond to different treatments.

The team analyzed whole genome sequencing (WGS) data from more than 9,000 cancer patients. Their results, published in Science Translational Medicine, also challenge a widely held assumption that every cancer type has its own unique microbial signature.

“This study changes how we think about the role of microbes in cancer,” said lead researcher Dr. Abraham Gihawi, from UEA’s Norwich Medical School.

How scientists analyzed tumor microbes

To carry out the study, researchers examined Genomics England DNA sequence data from 11,735 cancer samples spanning 22 different cancer types.

“When you collect cancer DNA sequences, you also gain information from the DNA of microbes contained within the samples,” said Dr. Gihawi.

“We wanted to determine the precise DNA composition of microbes present in each sample. So, we developed computer programs to remove human DNA and analyse the remaining microbe DNA.

“We then correlated this information with clinical data from the patients about their cancer type and clinical outcome.

“What we found challenges previous claims that each cancer type has a distinct microbiological signature or fingerprint.

“But importantly, as whole genome sequencing becomes more common in hospitals, we show that looking at the microbes in tumor samples could become a powerful tool for improving cancer care at little extra cost.

Colorectal cancer shows a distinct microbial signature

The analysis revealed a clear pattern. Among all cancers studied, only colorectal tumors consistently showed a unique and identifiable microbial community.

“Our results show that only colorectal tumors possess distinctly identifiable microbial communities.

“We found that these microbial signatures were so specific that they could accurately distinguish colorectal tumors from other tumors. We hope that this could help doctors diagnose the disease more precisely and researchers to study the microbes found in colorectal cancer.”

The study also points to broader clinical uses. In oral cancers, researchers found that certain viruses such as HPV (human papillomavirus) could be detected more accurately than with some current diagnostic tests.

They also identified rare but dangerous viruses, including Human T-Lymphotropic Virus-1 (HTLV-1), which can remain dormant in the body and later contribute to cancer development.

Microbes linked to survival and treatment response

The findings suggest that microbes may do more than simply exist alongside cancer. In some cases, they appear to be linked to how patients fare.

“We found that certain types of bacteria were associated with poorer survival rates in some cases of sarcoma. This might lead to additional research and treatment options for these types of cancer,” said Dr. Gihawi.

“One of the most exciting things we found was that in some sarcoma cases, the presence of specific bacteria was linked to better survival rates.

“This suggests that microbes might one day help doctors predict how well a patient will respond to treatment and open up new approaches to treatment,” he added.

Whole genome sequencing as a clinical tool

Experts say the work highlights the growing importance of genome sequencing in modern medicine.

Prof Daniel Brewer, from UEA’s Norwich Medical School, said: “This study highlights the growing clinical value of whole genome sequencing in identifying pathogenic organisms such as HTLV-1 and papillomavirus, which may otherwise go undetected.

“By revealing these hidden infections and providing insight into cancer prognosis — particularly in sarcomas — it demonstrates how genomic analysis is becoming an indispensable tool in precision medicine.

“The findings also suggest that oral cancer, in some cases, may be a close diagnostic consideration, further emphasizing the importance of comprehensive genomic profiling in clinical decision-making.”

Collaboration and funding

The project was led by UEA and involved researchers from multiple institutions, including the University of Leeds, the Quadram Institute, Oxford Nanopore Technologies, the Institute of Cancer Research, London, the University of Manchester, National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Manchester Biomedical Research Centre, the University of Athens (Greece) the University of Liverpool, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University College London, the University of Southampton, the University of North Carolina (US) and the Earlham Institute.

Funding for the study was provided by the Big C Cancer Charity and Prostate Cancer UK.

Named Cryptotermes mobydicki, the termite was described by an international research team led by a University of Florida scientist. It features a long, rounded head and mandibles that are mostly hidden from view. Its shape closely resembles a sperm whale, the famous marine animal from Herman Melville’s novel, which inspired its name.

“This termite is unlike anything we’ve ever seen,” said Rudolf Scheffrahn, professor of entomology at the UF Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS).

Whale-Like Head Shape Surprises Scientists

According to Scheffrahn, the insect’s appearance was so unusual that researchers initially believed they might be looking at an entirely new genus. His taxonomic research is based at the UF/IFAS Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center.

“The lateral view of the soldier’s frontal prominence and elongated head resembles the head of a sperm whale, and in both organisms, the mandibles are eclipsed by the head,” he said. “The whale’s eye and soldier’s antennal socket are comparatively positioned. After I noticed the resemblance to a sperm whale, my coauthors thought the name to be appropriate and whimsical, much like ‘ghost orchid’ or ‘Dumbo octopus.'”

New Species Adds to Termite Evolution Puzzle

This discovery brings the number of known Cryptotermes species in South America to 16. Genetic analysis shows that Cryptotermes mobydicki is closely related to other species found across the Neotropics, including populations in Colombia, Trinidad and the Dominican Republic. These findings provide new insight into how this group of termites has evolved and spread.

The colony was located inside a dead tree standing about eight meters above the forest floor. Its unusual body structure highlights just how diverse termite species can be and points to how many organisms in tropical environments remain undocumented.

Biodiversity Gains and No Threat to Homes

“The discovery of this distinctive new termite species underscores the vast number of unnamed organisms yet to be discovered on our planet,” said Scheffrahn.

Each new species adds to scientists’ understanding of biodiversity, especially in groups like termites, which include only about 3,000 known species worldwide.

There is also reassuring news for Florida property owners. As a drywood termite, Cryptotermes mobydicki does not pose a risk to buildings or trade. Unlike invasive termites that damage structures in parts of the southeastern United States, this species is limited to its native rainforest habitat and does not spread beyond it.