A recent study published in Geology shows that this same complexity exists on Mars. High resolution images of the landscape and mineral measurements collected from orbit indicate that some of the planet’s youngest volcanic regions have a much more detailed history than previously assumed. Instead of forming during brief, one time eruptions, these volcanoes were built by magma systems that remained active and changed over extended periods beneath the martian surface.

Study Focuses on Volcanic System Near Pavonis Mons

An international team of researchers from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, the School of Earth, Environment and Sustainability (SEES) at the University of Iowa, and the Lancaster Environment Centre examined a long lasting volcanic system located south of Pavonis Mons, one of the largest volcanoes on Mars. By pairing careful surface mapping with mineral data gathered from orbiting spacecraft, the scientists reconstructed how the volcano and its underlying magma system developed over time with remarkable precision.

“Our results show that even during Mars’ most recent volcanic period, magma systems beneath the surface remained active and complex,” says Bartosz Pieterek of Adam Mickiewicz University. “The volcano did not erupt just once — it evolved over time as conditions in the subsurface changed.”

Multiple Eruptive Phases Traced by Mineral Signatures

The analysis revealed that the volcanic system progressed through several stages. Early activity involved lava spreading out from fissures in the ground, while later eruptions came from more focused vents that built cone shaped features. Although these lava deposits look different today, they were all fed by the same underlying magma reservoir. Each phase left behind a unique mineral fingerprint, allowing researchers to track how the magma’s composition shifted over time.

“These mineral differences tell us that the magma itself was evolving,” Pieterek explains. “This likely reflects changes in how deep the magma originated and how long it was stored beneath the surface before erupting.”

Orbital Data Offers Rare Insight Into Mars Interior

Since scientists cannot yet collect rock samples directly from Martian volcanoes, studies like this offer valuable information about the planet’s interior. The findings demonstrate how powerful orbital observations can be for uncovering the hidden structure and long term evolution of volcanic systems, both on Mars and on other rocky worlds.

That balance changes when peatlands are drained for farming. Lowering the water table allows oxygen to enter the soil, speeding up microbial activity. As microbes break down the previously preserved plant matter, carbon that has been stored for centuries is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Northern Peatlands Remain Understudied

Large areas of peatland across Europe and the Nordic region have been drained since the 1600s. Scientists have closely examined how drainage and shifting water levels affect greenhouse gas emissions in many of these regions.

Far less is known about the northernmost peatlands used for agriculture. These areas experience cold temperatures, short growing seasons, and extended daylight during summer months.

“From studies in warmer regions, we know that raising the groundwater level in drained and cultivated peatland often reduces CO₂ emissions, because the peat decomposes more slowly,” explains NIBIO researcher Junbin Zhao.

“At the same time, wetter and low-oxygen conditions can increase methane, since the microbes that produce methane thrive when there is almost no oxygen in the soil.”

Nitrous oxide can also increase under certain moisture conditions. When soil is damp but not completely waterlogged, nitrogen breakdown may stop midway, producing nitrous oxide instead of harmless nitrogen gas.

“Because each greenhouse gas reacts differently to changes in water level, one gas can go down while another goes up. That’s why it’s important to look at the overall gas balance,” says Zhao.

“We need to measure CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide at the same time and throughout the whole season to understand the real net effect in the northernmost agricultural areas.”

Two Year Arctic Field Study in Northern Norway

To answer these questions, Zhao and his colleagues carried out a two year field study in 2022 and 2023 at NIBIO’s Svanhovd research station in the Pasvik Valley of Northern Norway. Automated chambers tracked CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions multiple times per day throughout the growing season.

“The experiment included five plots that together reflected typical management conditions found in a drained agricultural field — with different groundwater levels, different amounts of fertiliser, and different numbers of harvests per season,” Zhao explains.

The team focused on three key questions:

• Can raising the groundwater level make a cultivated Arctic peatland close to climate-neutral?
• Does the water level affect soil CO₂ emissions more than it affects plant CO₂ uptake?
• How do fertilization and harvesting influence the total climate balance?

Higher Groundwater Levels Cut CO₂ Emissions

When the Pasvik peatland was heavily drained, it released large amounts of CO₂, comparable to cultivated peatlands farther south. But when researchers raised the groundwater to between 25 and 50 cm below the surface, emissions dropped sharply.

“At these higher water levels, methane and nitrous oxide emissions were also low, giving a much better overall gas balance. Under such conditions, the field even absorbed slightly more CO₂ than it released,” says Zhao.

This suggests that maintaining higher groundwater levels in Arctic farmland could serve as an effective climate strategy.

“Our findings are especially interesting because emissions were measured continuously around the clock. This meant we captured short spikes of unusually high emissions and natural daily fluctuations, details often missed when measurements are taken only occasionally.”

Why Cold Arctic Climates Amplify the Effect

Raising the water table makes the soil wetter and reduces oxygen around plant roots. Plants become somewhat less active and absorb less CO₂ under these conditions.

Even so, overall CO₂ emissions from the field decline.

“This is because wet conditions mean that the field needs less light before it starts to absorb more CO₂ than it releases. When this threshold is reached earlier in the day, you get more hours with net carbon uptake,” Zhao explains.

“Our calculations show that this effect is especially strong in the north, due to the long, light summer nights. These provide many extra hours where the system remains on the positive side, which can increase total CO₂ uptake significantly.”

Temperature turned out to be another crucial factor. Once soil temperatures climbed above about 12°C, microbial activity intensified.

“At higher temperatures, microorganisms break down organic material faster, and both CO₂ and methane emissions rise,” says Zhao.

“This means that the effect of high water levels is greatest in cool climates — and that future warming could reduce the benefit. In practice, this means water levels must be considered together with temperature and local conditions.”

Fertilization and Harvesting Shape the Carbon Balance

Farm management practices also played a role. Adding more fertilizer boosted grass growth.

“More fertilizer produced more biomass but did not lead to noticeable changes in CO₂ or methane emissions in our experiment,” says Zhao.

Harvesting had a clearer impact. When grass was cut and removed, the carbon stored in plant material left the system.

“If harvesting is very frequent, more carbon can be taken out than is built up again over time. The peat layer may gradually lose carbon even when water levels are kept high,” Zhao explains.

For that reason, Zhao emphasizes that water management, fertilizer use, and harvesting schedules must be evaluated together. Steps that lower emissions in the short term could reduce long term carbon storage, potentially weakening soil quality.

“One solution could be paludiculture, i.e. growing plant species that tolerate wet conditions so that biomass can be produced without keeping the soil dry.”

Local Differences Matter for Climate Accounting

The researchers also observed significant variation within the same field. Some areas absorbed CO₂, while nearby sections released substantial amounts.

“Such local variation can greatly influence national climate accounting and how measures are designed, because one standard emission factor may not reflect reality everywhere,” Zhao says.

“The results from our study show a clear need for more detailed measurements and more precise water-level management in practice, especially where soils and farming conditions vary significantly between locations.”

Isoxazoline drugs are a relatively new class of antiparasitic medications prescribed by veterinarians around the world to protect pets from fleas and ticks. Introduced in 2013, they quickly gained popularity because they were the first oral treatments capable of controlling both pests for a month or longer. After pets take these medications, the active compounds pass through their bodies and are excreted in feces.

Drug Residues Enter Soil and Ecosystems

The European Medicines Agency has previously warned that these substances could contaminate ecosystems, although detailed information about how much of the drugs enter the environment remains limited. The main concern centers on how veterinary parasite treatments might affect species that are not the intended targets.

Isoxazolines are designed to kill fleas and ticks, but when treated animals eliminate the drugs, other insects may also be exposed. Research suggests pets can introduce these chemicals into the environment through feces, urine, and even shed hair. Of particular concern are dung-feeding insects such as flies, dung beetles, and some butterflies. These species play a vital role in breaking down waste, recycling nutrients, improving soil quality, and helping control pests. If they consume feces containing the drug residues, they may be harmed.

Study Tracks Isoxazoline Residues in Pet Feces

To better understand the risk, researchers in France monitored 20 dogs and 20 cats owned by veterinary students. The animals received isoxazoline treatments over a three month period. Scientists collected fecal samples to measure how much of the active ingredients remained and to estimate how much exposure dung-feeding insects could face.

The analysis focused on how these medications are eliminated in pet waste. Even after the recommended treatment period had ended, researchers detected two of the four active ingredients commonly found in isoxazoline products in the animals’ feces.

Potential Impact on Dung Feeding Insects

An environmental risk assessment based on these findings suggests that dung-feeding insects could experience high levels of exposure to isoxazoline compounds as a result of routine pet treatments. The researchers warn that this exposure could disrupt important ecological processes and potentially lead to serious consequences for environmental lifecycles.