For many years, paleontologists have studied ancient footprints while debating what kinds of animals created them. Some tracks may belong to meat eating predators, others to plant eating dinosaurs, and some have even raised questions about whether early bird species were involved.

Turning Photos Into Instant Analysis

With the new DinoTracker app, researchers and dinosaur fans can upload a photo or drawing of a footprint using a mobile phone and receive an immediate analysis. The app evaluates the shape and structure of the track to estimate which type of dinosaur likely made it.

Fosilized dinosaur footprints offer valuable insight into prehistoric life, helping scientists understand how dinosaurs moved and behaved. However, earlier studies have shown that these tracks are often difficult to interpret because their shapes can be altered over time.

Moving Beyond Traditional Methods

In the past, researchers relied on manually built computer databases that linked specific footprints to specific dinosaurs. Experts note that this approach could introduce bias, especially when the identity of a track was uncertain or disputed.

To address this problem, a research team led by the Helmholtz-Zentrum research centre in Berlin, working with the University of Edinburgh, developed advanced algorithms that allow computers to learn on their own how dinosaur footprints vary in shape.

The AI system was trained on nearly 2,000 real fossil footprints, along with millions of additional simulated examples. These extra variations were designed to reflect realistic changes, such as compression and edge displacement, that occur as footprints are preserved over time.

What the AI Looks For

The model learned to recognize eight key features that distinguish one footprint from another. These included how far the toes spread, where the heel was positioned, how much surface area contacted the ground, and how weight was distributed across different parts of the foot.

After identifying these variations, the system compared new footprints with known fossil examples to predict which dinosaur most likely made the tracks.

When evaluated, the algorithm matched the classifications made by human experts about 90 percent of the time, even for species that are considered controversial or difficult to identify.

Unexpected Links to Birds

One of the most surprising findings came from tracks that are more than 200 million years old. The AI detected striking similarities between some dinosaur footprints and the feet of both extinct and modern birds.

According to the research team, this could mean that birds emerged tens of millions of years earlier than scientists have previously believed. Another possibility is that some early dinosaurs happened to have feet that closely resembled bird feet by coincidence.

New Insights From Scotland

The system also offered new clues about mysterious footprints found on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. These tracks were formed on the muddy edge of a lagoon around 170 million years ago and have puzzled scientists for decades.

The analysis suggests that these footprints may have been left by some of the oldest known relatives of duck-billed dinosaurs, making them among the earliest examples of this group identified anywhere in the world.

Opening Paleontology to Everyone

Researchers say the technology creates new opportunities to study how dinosaurs lived and moved across the Earth. It also gives the public a chance to take part in fossil research by analyzing footprints themselves.

The study was published in PNAS and funded by the innovations pool of the BMBF-Project: Data-X, the Helmholtz project ROCK-IT, the Helmholtz-AI project NorMImag the National Geographic Society and the Leverhulme Trust.

Dr. Gregor Hartmann of Helmholtz-Zentrum research center, said: “Our method provides an unbiased way to recognize variation in footprints and test hypotheses about their makers. It’s an excellent tool for research, education, and even fieldwork.”

Professor Steve Brusatte, Personal Chair of Palaeontology and Evolution, School of GeoSciences, said: “This study is an exciting contribution for paleontology and an objective, data-driven way to classify dinosaur footprints — something that has stumped experts for over a century.

“It opens up exciting new possibilities for understanding how these incredible animals lived and moved, and when major groups like birds first evolved. This computer network might have identified the world’s oldest birds, which I think is a fantastic and fruitful use for AI.”

Scientists at the University of British Columbia, working with collaborators at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, have now identified what triggers these muscle-related problems. Their research, published in Nature Communications, points toward a path for developing safer statins that do not cause these complications.

How Statins Interact With Muscle Cells

To uncover the mechanism, the researchers turned to cryo-electron microscopy, an advanced imaging method that allows scientists to see proteins in near-atomic detail. Using this technique, they observed how statins interact with a key muscle protein known as the ryanodine receptor (RyR1).

This protein regulates the flow of calcium inside muscle cells, acting as a gate that opens only when muscles need to contract. The researchers found that when statins bind to RyR1, they force the channel into an open position. This causes calcium to leak continuously, which can be toxic to muscle tissue and lead to damage.

“We were able to see, almost atom by atom, how statins latch onto this channel,” said lead author Dr. Steven Molinarolo, a postdoctoral researcher in UBC’s department of biochemistry and molecular biology. “That leak of calcium explains why some patients experience muscle pain or, in extreme cases, life-threatening complications.”

A Unique Binding Pattern Revealed

The study focused on atorvastatin, one of the most commonly prescribed statins worldwide. However, the researchers believe the same mechanism may apply to other drugs in the statin family.

They discovered that statins bind to the ryanodine receptor in an unusual way. Three statin molecules cluster together inside a pocket of the protein. The first molecule binds while the channel is closed, setting the stage for it to open. Two additional molecules then lodge into place, forcing the channel fully open.

“This is the first time we’ve had a clear picture of how statins activate this channel,” said Dr. Filip Van Petegem, senior author and professor at UBC’s Life Sciences Institute. “It’s a big step forward because it gives us a roadmap for designing statins that don’t interact with muscle tissue.”

Toward Safer Cholesterol Drugs

By modifying only the parts of the statin molecule responsible for these harmful interactions, researchers may be able to keep the cholesterol-lowering benefits while reducing the risk of muscle damage.

Severe muscle injury affects only a small percentage of the more than 200 million statin users worldwide. However, milder symptoms such as soreness and fatigue are far more common and often cause patients to stop taking the medication. The new findings could help reduce these side effects and encourage patients to stay on treatments that protect their heart health.

Advanced Imaging Drives Medical Breakthroughs

The study highlights how cutting-edge imaging tools are transforming medical research. Using the UBC faculty of medicine’s high-resolution macromolecular cryo-electron microscopy facility, the team captured the statin-protein interaction in exceptional detail, turning a long-standing safety question into actionable scientific insight that could shape future therapies.

“Statins have been a cornerstone of cardiovascular care for decades,” Dr. Van Petegem said. “Our goal is to make them even safer, so patients can benefit without fear of serious side effects.”

For the millions of people who depend on statins, these advances could translate into fewer muscle problems and a better overall quality of life.

Now, scientists have taken a major step toward solving that mystery. A new study led by researchers at the University of Chicago and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory has produced the most detailed model of Jupiter’s atmosphere ever created. The work provides a deeper look into the planet’s interior without needing to physically descend into its crushing depths.

One of the study’s key findings helps resolve a long running debate about Jupiter’s composition. The researchers estimate that the gas giant contains roughly one and a half times more oxygen than the sun. That result sharpens scientists’ understanding of how Jupiter and the rest of the solar system took shape.

“This is a long-standing debate in planetary studies,” said Jeehyun Yang, a postdoctoral researcher at UChicago and the study’s lead author. “It’s a testament to how the latest generation of computational models can transform our understanding of other planets.”

The study was published Jan. 8 in The Planetary Science Journal.

Storms, Clouds, and Chemical Clues

Astronomers have been watching Jupiter’s turbulent atmosphere for centuries. More than 360 years ago, early telescope observations revealed a massive, persistent feature on the planet’s surface.

That feature is now known as the Great Red Spot, a colossal storm roughly twice the size of Earth that has raged for hundreds of years. It is only one part of a planet-wide system of violent winds and thick clouds that blanket Jupiter in nearly constant motion.

While these storms are visible from afar, what lies beneath them remains largely unknown. Jupiter’s clouds are so dense that NASA’s Galileo spacecraft lost contact with Earth when it plunged into the planet’s atmosphere in 2003. Today, NASA’s Juno mission studies Jupiter from orbit, gathering data from a safe distance.

From orbit, scientists can identify chemicals in the upper atmosphere, including ammonia, methane, ammonium hydrosulfide, water, and carbon monoxide. Researchers combine those measurements with known chemical reactions to infer what may be happening deeper below the clouds.

Even so, past studies have reached conflicting conclusions, especially when estimating how much water and oxygen Jupiter contains. Yang recognized that new modeling techniques could help resolve those disagreements.

A New Way to Model Jupiter’s Atmosphere

Jupiter’s atmosphere is a chemical maze. Molecules move between scorching temperatures deep inside the planet and cooler regions above, shifting between different states and rearranging themselves through thousands of reactions. On top of that, clouds and droplets form, dissolve, and interact with their surroundings.

To capture all of this complexity, Yang and colleagues combined atmospheric chemistry with hydrodynamics in a single model. This approach allows the simulation to track both chemical reactions and the movement of gases, clouds, and droplets together.

“You need both,” Yang said. “Chemistry is important but doesn’t include water droplets or cloud behavior. Hydrodynamics alone simplifies the chemistry too much. So, it’s important to bring them together.”

This combined approach had not been done before at this level of detail, and it led to several important insights.

Oxygen, Water, and Planetary Origins

The model produced a new estimate of Jupiter’s oxygen content, pointing again to a value of about one and a half times that of the sun. This contrasts with a recent high profile study that suggested Jupiter might contain only about a third as much oxygen.

Pinning down this number matters because oxygen plays a major role in planetary formation. The elements that make up planets and living things originated in the sun, but their proportions can vary from world to world. Those differences offer clues about how planets formed and where they came from.

One open question is whether Jupiter formed where it currently orbits or whether it migrated over time. Much of the planet’s oxygen is locked into water, which behaves very differently depending on temperature. Farther from the sun, water freezes into ice, which is easier for growing planets to collect than water vapor.

Understanding those conditions does not just explain Jupiter’s past. It also helps scientists predict what kinds of planets might form around other stars and which ones could potentially support life.

A Slower, More Mysterious Atmosphere

The model also suggests that Jupiter’s atmosphere circulates far more slowly than scientists once believed. Vertical movement of gases appears to be dramatically reduced compared to standard assumptions.

“Our model suggests the diffusion would have to be 35 to 40 times slower compared to what the standard assumption has been,” said Yang. Instead of moving through an atmospheric layer in hours, a single molecule might take several weeks.

“It really shows how much we still have to learn about planets, even in our own solar system,” Yang said.

Funding: NASA, Caltech-Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

By studying the V1298 Tau system, the researchers captured an unusually early snapshot of planetary development. Their measurements reveal planets caught in the act of changing into the super-Earths and sub-Neptunes seen throughout the galaxy.

“What’s so exciting is that we’re seeing a preview of what will become a very normal planetary system,” says John Livingston, the study’s lead author from the Astrobiology Center in Tokyo, Japan. “The four planets we studied will likely contract into ‘super-Earths’ and ‘sub-Neptunes’ — the most common types of planets in our galaxy, but we’ve never had such a clear picture of them in their formative years.”

A Young Star System Frozen in Time

V1298 Tau is remarkably young by astronomical standards, at just about 20 million years old — a blink of an eye compared to the Sun’s 4.5-billion-year history. Four large planets circle this energetic star, each ranging in size from Neptune to Jupiter. These worlds appear to be in a short-lived and chaotic stage of rapid change, offering a glimpse of what many mature planetary systems once looked like.

Astronomers believe this system represents an early version of the tightly packed, multi-planet systems commonly found across the galaxy. Much like the Rosetta Stone helped scientists interpret ancient hieroglyphics, V1298 Tau provides a key reference for understanding how the galaxy’s most common planets take shape.

Measuring Planetary Mass Without Doppler Signals

Over a ten-year period, the team relied on a combination of space-based and ground-based telescopes to monitor the system. They tracked the precise moments when each planet crossed in front of its star, events called transits. These observations revealed that the planets’ orbits were not perfectly steady. Instead, the planets subtly pulled on one another, causing small but measurable changes in their transit timing.

These variations, known as Transit-Timing Variations (TTVs), allowed scientists to calculate the planets’ masses directly for the first time.

“For astronomers, our go-to ‘Doppler’ method for weighing planets involves making careful measurements of the star’s velocity as it’s tugged by its retinue of planets.” said Erik Petigura, a co-author from UCLA. “But young stars are so extremely spotty, active, and temperamental, that the Doppler method is a non-starter.” By using TTVs, we essentially used the planets’ own gravity against each other. Precisely timing how they tug on their neighbors allowed us to calculate their masses, and sidestep the issues with this young star.”

Planets as Light as Cosmic Cotton Candy

The mass measurements revealed a striking result. Even though the planets are five to ten times larger than Earth, their masses are only five to fifteen times greater. This combination makes them extraordinarily low in density — more like planetary-sized cotton candy than solid, rocky worlds.

“The unusually large radii of young planets led to the hypothesis that they have very low densities, but this had never been measured,” said Trevor David, a co-author from the Flatiron Institute who led the system’s original discovery in 2019. “By weighing these planets for the first time, we have provided the first observational proof. They are indeed exceptionally ‘puffy,’ which gives us a crucial, long-awaited benchmark for theories of planet evolution.”

Losing Atmospheres and Shrinking Over Time

This extreme puffiness helps resolve a long-standing question in planet formation. If planets simply formed and cooled slowly, they would be far more compact. Instead, the analysis shows that these young worlds must have changed dramatically early on, quickly losing large portions of their thick atmospheres as the surrounding disk of gas around their star disappeared.

“These planets have already undergone a dramatic transformation, rapidly losing much of their original atmospheres and cooling faster than what we’d expect from standard models,” explains James Owen, a co-author from Imperial College London who led the theoretical modeling. “But they’re still evolving. Over the next few billion years, they will continue to lose their atmosphere and shrink significantly, transforming into the compact worlds we see throughout the galaxy.”

Petigura compared the system’s importance to a famous fossil discovery. “I’m reminded of the famous ‘Lucy’ fossil, one of our hominid ancestors that lived 3 million years ago and was one of the key ‘missing links’ between apes and humans,” he said. “V1298Tau is a critical link between the star/planet forming nebulae we see all over the sky, and the mature planetary systems that we have now discovered by the thousands.”

Why Our Solar System Is Different

Today, V1298 Tau stands out as a natural laboratory for studying how the most common planets in the Milky Way come into existence. Observations of this system provide rare insight into the chaotic and transformative early lives of planets and may help explain why our own solar system lacks the super-Earths and sub-Neptunes that dominate elsewhere.

“This discovery fundamentally changes how we think about planetary systems,” adds Livingston. “V1298 Tau shows us that today’s super-Earths and sub-Neptunes start out as giant, puffy worlds that contract over time. We’re essentially watching the universe’s most successful planetary architecture in the making.”